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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OP SOILS— BULLETIN NO. 68.
MILTON WHITNEY, Chlsf.
THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL
BY THE WIND,
By E. E. FREE,
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF EOLIAN GEOLOGY,
Bl S. C. STUNTZ in E. E. FREE.
GOVERNM1TNT PKINTTNO OTTIOK.
L>3\M
BUREAU OF SOILS.
Milton Whitney, Chief of Bureau.
Albert 6. Rice, Chief Clerk.
BCIBNTIFIC STAFF.
Frank K. Cameron, in charge of Physical and Chemical Investigations.
Jay A. Bonstbel, in charge of Soil Survey.
Oswald Schreiner, in charge of Fertility Investigations.
W J McGeb, in charge of Soil-Water Investigations.
2
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Soils,
Washington, D. C. f January 19, 1910.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of an
article entitled "The Movement of Soil Material by the Wind," by
E. E. Free, of this Bureau, with a bibliography of Eolian geology by
S. C. Stuntz and E. E. Free. This article comprises an exhaustive
review of the literature covering the subject, as well as the results
of studies in the laboratory and in the field, both by the author and
other members of the laboratory force. I recommend that this
article be published as Bulletin No. 68 of the Bureau of Soils.
Very respectfully,
Milton Whitney,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,
Secretary of Agriculture.
*
PREFACE.
The relation of the soil to crop production has always been regarded
as the fundamental problem of agricultural investigation. It has
inspired numerous researches and led to the production of an enor-
mous literature. By far the greater part of these researches and their
accompanying literature have been dominated by a theory, which has
been conveniently designated as the "plant- food theory of fertili-
zers/' but which may be defined more precisely as follows: The pre-
dominating factor in the production of a crop is the amount of avail-
able mineral plant nutrients in the soil. The primary purpose of
this theory is to account for the results produced by the use of soil
amendments, or fertilizers and manures. It presupposes that a given
field or soil mass stays in place indefinitely, and without changes,
except for such local ones as may be produced by cultural methods,
or the removal of plant nutrients in garnered crops and seepage
waters. The chief merit of the theory is its simplicity. Recent
investigation and analysis of the problem have shown, however, that
no such simple theory can be satisfactory; that many factors enter
into the production of crops, or, in other words, the efficiency of the
plant depends on numerous factors. The prominent characteristic
of all these factors, including the soil factors, is that they are con-
stantly in processes of change. In other words, the problem is
dynamic rather than static.
Considering the soil factor, or more properly, factors, it is now
clearly recognized that the living plant, or at least that part of it in
the soil, the root, is always in motion while the plant lives. The soil
solution, the natural nutrient medium for plants, is always in motion;
for when water falls upon the soil there is always a movement into
and through the larger soil interstices, mainly by gravity, and when
the precipitation ceases there is immediately surface evaporation
accompanied by a return to the surface of a portion of the absorbed
water through the capillary interstices and in films over the soil
grains. In like manner, the soil atmosphere is constantly changing,
and it is obvious that the life of insects, bacteria, etc., in the soil is a
process of growth and decay, and therefore of constant change.
The solid particles of the soil are likewise always in motion. The
activities of insects, crawfish, earthworms, burrowing animals, etc.,
6 PBXFAOB.
in translocating soil material are now recognised as being, in the
aggregate, very large. Freezing and thawing produce considerable
motion of soil material. It has recently been shown that every
change in the moisture content of a soil is accompanied by necessary
movements of the soil particles, and by changes in their state of
aggregation, and it is obvious that under field conditions a soil is
always either drying out or being wetted.
Besides these movements of the solid soil particles, resulting in
profound changes from time to time, not the least of which is an
interchange of the material between soil and subsoil, there is con-
stantly in process a translocation of soil material from field to field,
from area to area, and frequently over large distances. As a result,
soils are notably complex as regards their composition — more com-
plex by far than the individual rocks or rock magmas from which
they have been derived; and, speaking generally, practically all soils
contain all or nearly all of the common rock-forming minerals. To
produce this state of affairs, two natural agencies are competent —
water and wind. The effect of water action in translocating soil
material is enormous, but restricted by the facts that water can run
" down hill " only, and is but occasionally in action. The effects of wind
action are quite as important, for the wind is constantly in action,
to a greater or lesser extent, and blows up hill as well as down.
While the effects of water action may be more striking and impressive,
the effects of wind action are quite as important, from the point of
view of the student of soils, if not of the surface geologist.
The activity of the wind as a geologic agent has long been recog-
nized, and frequent descriptions exist of various phases of its activity.
But its action on the soil has not received that amount and character
of attention which both the practical and theoretical importance of
the phenomena would seem to demand. Particularly is this so in
that observations have been made with reference to strictly geolog-
ical rather than agronomic considerations, and attention has been
confined mainly to but a few and generally minor locations of strictly
eolian soils.
It is clear that not only has the wind been a most important agent
in the past in soil translocation, but that it is equally important
to-day, not only in forming and modifying great deposits and areas
of soil, but in modifying and affecting more or less profoundly every
farm and field. It is one of the most important factors in the com-
plex system of soil movement affecting soil fertility. No fact in our
knowledge of the soil is now more clearly defined than that the soil
of a particular field is not just the soil that was there a few years
ago, or just the soil that will be there a few years hence. More-
over, it appears that when this translocation is at a "normal" it is
beneficial and an important factor in maintaining fertility- But
PBEFAOB. 7
) when excessive, "wind erosion" is one of the most baneful of the
* farmers' troubles. Its prevention and control is therefore one of the
great practical problems of agriculture, one easily met in the majority
of cases, but sadly neglected, nevertheless.
Methods for controlling the action of the wind must be devised.
Windbreaks, cover crops, rotation schemes, cultural, and other meth-
ods are actually in use to this end, more or less successfully. But in
few localities can it be claimed that the problems have been met with
complete success, and an unusual opportunity is open for experi-
mental work of a most useful kind. In the following pages attention
is called to the specific methods now in use, and it is felt that the dis-
cussion of the subject as given in the bulletin as a whole will be a useful
step forward in the working out of practical methods of soil control
in this field. Not alone to the tiller of the soil is this a matter of
great economic importance, but to the railroads, the public highways,
and irrigation works it is of great, and in some cases, paramount
importance.
Important as is the action of the wind in removing soil material,
and replacing it anew with material from elsewhere in all localities,
it is especially so in arid and semiarid regions. Here control is not
so easy, and in fact wind action is in many areas of the arid portions
of the United States the all-important problem determining the
possibility of settlement and utilization of the soils. Here at least
the subject is by no means of merely academic interest, but is of the
greatest immediate importance.
In view of the facts presented above it has been deemed necessary
to bring together, correlate, and summarize the known data of eolian
geology from the viewpoint of the student of soils. This Mr. Free
has done, the results of his work being given in the following pages.
These include not only the results of a very comprehensive review of
the literature but many of his own observations, made in many
cases to clear up obscure points or apparent discrepancies in the
work of previous observers. In the preparation of the bibliography
the skill and experience of Mr. Stuntz have been available, so that
it may be regarded as fairly complete, it being improbable that any
citation of importance has been overlooked. It is believed that the
present bulletin will prove to be one of the most important in the
series which has been published from the Bureau of Soils on the fun-
damental principles of soil formation and soil control.
Frank K. Cameron.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Preface 5
Heterogeneity of soilB 13
Translocating agents in general 15
The limitations of water translocation 18
Wind translocation 22
The mechanics of wind translocation 24
Wind corrosion — sand-blast action 24
Protections against erosion by wind 28
The lifting of exposed material 33
The sorting of material by the wind 35
Deflation 37
The competence of the wind 41
The transport capacity of the wind 46
The distance to which material may be carried 47
The deposition of atmospheric load 49
Drifting Band and Band dunes 53
The nature of sand drifts 53
Sand dunes 57
Wind-formed sand ripples 67
The properties of blown sandB 68
The control of drifting sands 74
Dust storms and dust falls 77
Material moved by dust storms 80
Distances of transfer 82
Dust whirlwinds 83
European dust falls 88
Early theories regarding European dust falls 90
The Saharan origin of Birocco dust 92
Quantity of dust deposited in Europe 97
The continual drift of soil material with the wind 99
Accumulations of dust 100
Admixture of local material in dust falls 106
Natural burial of articles in the soil 106
The importance of soil drift 108
True atmospheric dust 110
The physics of dust suspension 1 10
The sources of atmospheric dust 112
The quantity of atmospheric dust 114
The optical effects of dust in the air 116
Extra-terrestrial dust 120
Geologic formations of eolian origin 122
EolianBoils 122
The loess 124
The origin of the loess 129
Eolian action during pre-Pleistocene time 141
9
10 CONTENTS.
Volcanic dust a* soil material 146
Fragmentary material thrown out by volcanoes 146
Character and production of volcanic dust 147
The air transport of volcanic dust 148
Volcanic tuffs 161
The composition of volcanic duste 152
Volcanic dust in the soil 168
Wind transport of vegetable matter 160
Translocation in general — supplementary action of the agents 162
Excessive blowing of the soil 164
Conclusion 172
Bibliography of eolian geology „ 174
Index 176
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FLATBS.
Plate I. Fig. 1. — Desert pavement of tufa fragments near Fallon, Nev.
Fig. 2. — Typical crescentic dune in the delta of Oarrizo Creek,
Colorado Desert (California) 32
II. Fig. I. — Removal of soil from around tree. Fig. 2. — Blown sand
collected behind a fence 32
III. Damage by blowing of soil on strawberry field near Severn, Md 160
IV. Recently planted field at Severn, Md., not damaged by blowing 160
V. Sand drifted between rows of plants, Severn, Md 168
FIGURES.
Fig. 1. Group of crescentic dunes in the desert near Bokhara (after Walther). . 61
2. Ideal diagram of air currents showing tendency of wind to blow sand
up ridges in both directions (after Darwin) 66
11
THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
THE HETEROGENEITY OF SOILS.**
Recent work in this Bureau and elsewhere has indicated * that the
normal soils in the most diverse regions are remarkably similar, in that
all of the important soil-forming minerals are present therein in greater
or lesser quantity. This similarity in the constituents of all soils
is of course largely due to the fact that they are formed everywhere
under much the same conditions and from materials of the same gen-
eral character, 6 namely, the rocks. The original igneous rocks con-
tain in most cases all of the minerals important in soil formation, and
since most sedimentary rocks are secondary deposits, derived from
igneous originals, they also contain the important soil minerals. It
should be noted that it is not necessary for the soil minerals to exist
in large quantity in the parent rock. The soil is usually the residuum
from the decay of a much greater, thickness of rock, and there are
some evidences that there is in the processes of soil formation a tend-
ency for the retention and concentration of the various minor rock
constituents, in spite of the fact that their proper rates of disintegra-
tion may be greater than those of the other, more prevalent, minerals.
If this be so the normal processes of soil formation will tend to main-
tain and to increase heterogeneity and the soil will be likely to con-
o Author's Note. — Throughout the following pages the attempt has been made
to cite authorities whenever possible and to give references to all important and per-
tinent literature. All quoted articles are given in the appended bibliography, and
readers interested in the literature are advised to refer at once to page 174, where the
system of citation is explained.
The author wishes also to acknowledge the general assistance and suggestions of the
many persons who during the past three years have encouraged and helped the devel-
opment of the ideas of which this bulletin is the fruit. Especially should an acknowl-
edgment be made to Dr. D. T. MacDougal and Prof. C. F. Tolman, jr., of Tucson, ^riz. ;
Prof. J. A. Udden, of Rock Island, 111.; Mr. J. M. Westgate of the Bureau of Plant
Industry; and Drs. F. K. Cameron and W J McGee of the Bureau of Soils. The assist-
ance of Mr. Stuntz has not been confined to the bibliography which bears his name, but
has been felt on every page of the text. To all these gentlemen and to many others
whose assistance it is impossible to acknowledge in detail, any excellence which this
work may possess is largely to be ascribed.
& Bull. 30, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 9-11 (1905), and references there
cited; also Bull. 54, Bureau of Soils (1908).
« The general processes of soil formation are discussed in all text-bookB on soils. See
especially Merrill — Rocks, rock- weathering, and soils (1906).
18
14 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
tain, not only all of the minerals present in the parent rock, but to
contain certain of the minor constituents in considerably increased
proportions. If, however, disintegration be carried too far, this
heterogeneity will be destroyed, because in the last analysis the per-
sistence of a mineral in the soil depends on its capacity of resisting
the disintegrating agents. An easily disintegrated mineral may be
protected for a time, perhaps by the presence of much other material,
but it must ultimately succumb. Thus a soil exposed to the weather-
ing agents without the supply of new and unweathered material must
come to be composed of its most resistant mineral in a more or less
pure state, and since quartz is the most resistant of the ordinary soil
minerals, the ordinary result of complete weathering of the soil is
pure quartz. This actually does occur in special cases where the
agencies of removal * are much more active than are those which sup-
ply unweathered material. Clarke • mentions a beach sand which
contained 99.65 per cent SiO„ and the present writer has examined
sands in which absolutely no mineral other than quartz could be
detected by microscopic examination, though traces of other ele-
ments, especially iron, could usually be found by chemical means.
Under desert conditions the products of mineral disintegration are so
rapidly removed by the wind that in the older deserts the surface
material is quartz sand of great purity . d
That such occurrences are not more frequent is due to the fact that
under normal conditions new material is supplied as rapidly as the old
is removed. Undecomposed rock fragments are brought up from
below and carried in from a distance by means of the various trans-
locating agents, and the composition of the soil is kept fairly con-
stant. In most cases also the mechanical removal of the entire soil is
so much more rapid than the differential removal of the more easily
disintegrated minerals that the processes which tend to make the soil
more siliceous do not have time to show their effects. This material
mechanically removed is replaced, so far as the soil is concerned, by
<* This means only that quartz is the most resistant in the majority oi cases, and
wherever the weathering agents — chemical and mechanical — are normally balanced.
To chemical erosion (by solution) quartz is not so resistant as are the various oxides and
hydroxides of iron, and if erosion were anywhere exclusively chemical the soil would
then- become not siliceous, but ferruginous. This case is approached in certain sec-
tions of the tropics and laterites high in iron have been there produced. The iron com-
pounds are, however, very easily disintegrated into minute fragments and are there-
fore unusually susceptible to removal by the agents of mechanical erosion (both eolian
and aqueous). In all ordinary cases therefore the iron is removed mechanically as fast
as or faster than the quartz is removed chemically, and it is only under conditions
which limit or inhibit the mechanical agencies that quartz loses its supremacy of per-
sistence.
& Mechanical, of course. See note a.
«U. S. Geol. butv. Bull. 330: 427 (1908).
d Walther— Wustenbildung,Jchap. 9 (1900). On the eilicification of sand by water
transport see Mackie— Trans. Edinb. geol. toe. 7 : 148-151 (1897).
TRANSLOCATING AGENTS IK GMTBBAL. 15
freshly disintegrated rock from below and by the translocation of the
surface material. The persistence of the soil is, as probably first
pointed out by filie de Beaumont, - rather a persistence of the soil
layer than of the individual particles. It can not be too much empha-
sized that the soil is always in process of change, and that soil condi-
tions are not static but dynamic. 6
Practically all writers "on the subject have noted the existence of
extensive areas of soil composed lasgely or entirely of transported
material. Shaler d estimates that the truly alluvial soils in North
America cover an area of over 200,000 square miles, and much greater
areas are covered by soils which are in part of alluvial origin. It is
much more common to find lack of conformity between the soil and
the underlying rock than it is to find the one strictly derived from the
other.
Not only are many soils thus composed in whole or in large part of
transported material, but even in soils which are clearly residual there
is frequently much foreign material. "Almost all soils, except those
on very level plains, have derived their mineral parts in some measure
from the rocks which do not lie immediately beneath their site." •
The observed heterogeneity of soils is therefore due both to the
nature of the processes of rock disintegration and to the mixing of one
soil with another, which is brought about by the various transporting
agencies. - The weathering agents alone could not permanently main*
tain the heterogeneity of the soil without the assistance and continued
activity of the transporting agents; and, since the fertility of the
soil depends on the existence therein of all the soil minerals, the great
importance of these agencies of transportation is evident.
TRANSLOCATING AGENTS IN OBNEBAL.
There are two general ways in which soils are mixed: (1) Vertical
translocation, mainly the bringing up of material from the subsoil or
below, and (2) lateral translocation, or the moving to one area of soil
material from some other area. The first is, of course, local and can
not supply to the soil anything not present in the parent rock or
other underlying material, though it is extremely important in pre-
venting the deterioration of the soil which might result from excessive
weathering. The second process may be either local or general, and is
not limited as to sources of material or distances of transport. Exact
discrimination in individual cases between vertical and lateral trans-
a Legons de geologic pratique, vol. 1, p. 140 (1847).
* Cameron — Jour, indust. and eng. chem. 1: 806-810 (1909).
cSee, for instance Johnston — Application of chemistry and geology to agricul-
ture, pp. 267-268 (1859); Shaler— Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 12: 287-306 (1891);
Merrill — Rocks, rock-weathering, and soils, part IV (1906); Hilgard — Soils, chap. I
(1906).
<*Loc. cit., p. 291.
• Shaler— loc. cit., p. 296.
16 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
location is neither possible nor desirable. Both are constantly occiuv
ring side by side, and both are most necessary to the continued good
condition of the soil.
The most important agents in the vertical — and therefore local —
translocation of soils are the movements of plants and animals and
the operations of agriculture. When plants, especially trees, are
uprooted by the wind or other agency, their roots carry with them to
the surface considerable quantities of lower soil, and the space thus
left is slowly filled with surrounding surficial material. In humid
climates the most important of the animal agencies is probably that
of the ordinary earthworm, as was pointed out by Darwin a in 1837.
He estimates b that in places they produce on the surface an accu-
mulation of 0.2 inch annually. The similar action of ants and ter-
mites has been observed by Mills, Branner, d and Knab* in Brazil,
and by Shaler f in New England, and the various species of crawfish,
as well as the larger burrowing animals — moles, rabbits, and prairie
dogs — are doubtless also of importance.*
A certain amount of translocation, both vertical and lateral, is pro-
duced by the slow creep of soil on slopes under the action of frost,
changes of temperature, falling rain, etc.,* and by the gravitational
fall of particles to lower levels. More rapid transfer is produced in
occasional slips, landslides, etc. It seems certain also that the soil
particles themselves are continually in motion/ though the amount
of translocation produced by this means is probably very small.
a Proc. Geol. soc. London 2 : 574-676 (1838) ; Trans. Geol. boc. London (2) 5 : 505-610
(1840). His researches are given in extended form in his " Formation of vegetable
mould," 1881. See also Henry— Bull. Soc. Sci. Nancy (3) 1: 23-34 (1900).
ft Formation of vegetable mould, New York, 1898, p. 307.
e Amer. geol. 3: 351-357 (1889).
<*Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 7: 295-300 (1896); and Jour. geol. 8: 151-153 (1900).
e Science (n. s.) 30: 574-575 (1909).
/Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 12: 278 (1892). See also Kinahan— Geol. mag.
6: 348 (1869); Hensen— Zs. wiss. Zool. 28: 354-364 (1877); Key— Nature 17: 28
(1877); Holmgren— Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 20: 353-370 (1904); Hilgard— Science
(n. s.) 21: 551-552 (1905); Headlee and Dean— Kans. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 154:
165-180 (1908).
A good account of the action of plants and animals in moving the soil will be found
in Shaler's monograph already cited, Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 12: 268-297 (1892).
* This process (called "solifluction") has been well described by Andersson, Jour,
geol. 14=: 91-112(1906).
i The main item of evidence in favor of this conclusion is the fact that in most soils
considerable changes in volume take place on wetting and drying. (See Bull. 50,
Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 27-45 (1908), where previous literature is sum-
marized.) These volume changes are believed by Hilgard (Soils, p. 122) to be due to
the peculiar properties of "colloidal clay," and by Cameron and Gallagher (Bull. 50,
just cited, p. 50) to be caused by changes in the moisture films surrounding the grains,
with succeeding changes in the degree of " flocculation." Whatever their ultimate
cause, it is evident that they must be accompanied by a considerable movement of
the soil grains in relation to one another. It is possible that temperature changes may
also produce some such movements.
TRANSLOCATING AGENTS IN GENERAL. 17
More general in their sphere of action than the agencies above dis-
cussed are ice, water, and wind, which, since they act over extended
areas, are capable of transporting soil material to considerable dis-
tances. Of these, ice has been much more active at certain times
in the past than it is to-day. During the Olacial period the North
American ice sheet scraped off much of the soil which had pre-
viously accumulated on the areas which it covered, and deposited
it over the lands and in the seas to the south. At the present time
translocation by ice is of minor importance except in the polar
regions. Its manifestations elsewhere are confined to the action of
drift ice and of glaciers; the latter being occasionally of moment in
supplying silt to rivers. The importance of ice action to the student
of present-day conditions lies in the existence of extensive deposits
which have been largely produced through glacial agency, though that
agency has now ceased to act. The North American ice sheet on its
retreat left behind it a great amount of morainic material, while it
discharged from its borders enormous quantities of finely comminuted
rock, which was laid down by streams and in lakes and seas to form
the soils of later epochs. These glacial soils, formed both underhand
beyond the ice sheet, are to-day very important agriculturally, and
their origin has greatly affected their properties. This subject, how-
ever, is outside the scope of the present discussion.
The action of running water in transporting all manner of rock
detritus is a matter of common knowledge. Indeed water is usually
considered the only translocating agent of much importance, and,
while this conclusion is not justifiable, it is possible that a greater
actual quantity of soil material (and other detritus) is moved by
water than by any other one agent. In addition, too, to its more
extended and better known action as instanced by transfer in rivers,
etc., water produces much local mixing and moving of soils, both
vertically and laterally. It is probable that there is some tendency
for the finer material of a soil to wash downward through the inter-
spaces under the action of percolating rain water, and the lateral
movement is seen in the wash of surface soil by rain storms. Every
little rill carries its quota of soil particles and distributes them at
lower levels. The amounts concerned are small and may seem unim-
portant, but every rain does its part, and the aggregate results are
large. Exactly similar to the action of rain on the soil, though on a
larger scale, is the wash occasioned by heavy storms in mountainous
o See Hilgard— Soils, p. 161 (1906), and Hull— Ooreprong der Hollandsche duinen,
p. 103 (1838). However, some preliminary experiments (as yet unpublished) con-
ducted several years ago at Cornell University by Mr. C. F. Shaw, under the direc-
tion of Dr. J. A. Bonsteel, failed to show any tendency for the clay to accumulate
in the lower layers of a soil through which over 100 inches of water was percolated. It
is possible that the downward infiltration of clay is not so common as has been believed*
83952°— Bull. 68—11 2
18 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
regions, producing alluvial fans of material carried down mountain
slopes in the same way that soil material is carried down the irregu-
larities of a field. Small-scale examples can be seen everywhere after
a moderately heavy rain storm. The Brick Earth of southern
England is an extensive deposit believed to have been formed by rain
wash, and similar deposits occur in many other localities.
The transporting action of small streams is both more extended
and more restricted than that of rills formed by the rain. Streams
run all the time, but this apparent advantage is lost by their being
confined to fixed channels. The rain, however, falls everywhere, and
rain rills form over the whole of the uncovered surface, and hence have
a much greater quantity of material exposed to their attack than can
come under the action of permanent streams. Streams, on the other
hand, because of their permanency, can carry material to much
greater distances. Of course what actually happens is that the rain
• and the streams assist each other. The rain-water rills carry part of
the surface soil into the small streams and these in turn to the rivers.
Enormous quantities of silt are constantly in suspension in most
rivers and streams, 6 and in the larger rivers even greater quantities
are pushed along the bottom by the current.* Much of the trans-
ported material is thrown up along the bank and deposited on the
bottom, but most of it goes out to sea, and the precipitation both of
"bottom-drift" and of suspended material at the river's mouth sup-
plies the material which makes up the delta. Delta lands, being
composed of material derived from the whole drainage area of the
river, are unusually heterogeneous, and when cultivation is possible
remarkably fertile, as is indeed true of alluvial lands in general.
By rain wash and stream action, alone and together, the aggregate
of soil translocation performed by running water is very great indeed.
Yet this agent is by no means of universal action. Close examination
will show that its activity is narrowly limited in several ways, some
of which it will be advisable to discuss.
THE LIMITATIONS OF WATER TRANSLOCATION.
All water transportation is limited by two conditions prescribed
by the nature of the action itself: (1) It can occur only from higher
to lower levels, and (2) it can degrade or aggrade d only the surface
with which the water comes actually in contact. Water-borne
<* Godwin-Austen— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 6:94 (1860), 7:121 (1851); Foster and
Topley— ibid. 21:446 (1865); Prestwich— ibid. 48:323 (1892).
b See A. Geikie— Textbook of Geology, 4th ed., vol. 1, pp. 488-489 (1903);
Humphreys and Abbot — Physics and hydraulics of the Mississippi, 2d ed., pp. 147-149
(1876); Babb— Science 21: 342-343 (1893); and especially the comprehensive
tables of Dole and Stabler—XL S. Geol. surv. Water Bupp. pap. 234: 84-93 (1909).
« Humphreys and Abbot — loc. cit., p. 147; Forshey — Proc. Amer. assoc. adv. aci.
26: 144 (1877); Guerard— Proc. Inst. min. engs. 82: 309 (1884-35).
4 These words are used in their ordinary geological meanings. " Degrade " means to
lower the level of the general land surface of the locality considered by removing material
therefrom. * ' Aggrade " means to raise this surface by depositing material thereon.
THE LIMITATIONS OF WATER TRANSLOCATION. 19
detritus can be carried only down hill, and in ordinary cases the jour-
ney must be continuously downward. A barrier to the continuous
fall of the water will effectually stop the progress of the suspended
load, though the water itself, by backing up sufficiently, may be able
to escape at a higher level. Lakes thus formed act as settling basins
and the water escaping from them usually carries very little suspended
matter, however much it may have borne on entrance. Of course,
the material carried into a lake is laid down on its bottom and
will (if the supply be kept up) ultimately suffice to fill it, so that
the river will run through a flat plain where the lake once stood.
When this happens the detrital load of the stream will be carried
on to the next lake or to the sea.
The second limitation of water action is even more self-evident as
applied to streams. It is obvious that running water can attack only
the surface over which it runs, and equally obvious that it can
deposit the material gained only on those surfaces which it is, at
least occasionally, able to cover. This second limitation has, how-
ever, little force when applied to the action of rain water, for prac-
tically the whole surface is exposed to the action of rain. But rain
water, like all running water, can act only down hill, and its action
is still further limited by several special considerations. In the first
place, rain water becomes effective as an eroding and transporting
agent only when the precipitation is sufficiently rapid to exceed the
rate of absorption by the soil, and thus to cause water to run on the
surface. In most climates much of the annual rainfall comes in
rains so gentle that the water is absorbed as fast as it falls, and very
little, if any, runs over the surface outside of the fixed channels,
natural and artificial. Such rains can have no great translocating
action. Whether a particular rain storm will be sufficiently heavy
to have any erosive action depends not alone on the actual rate of pre-
cipitation but on the absorptive power of the soil, and, in the case of
long-continued rains, on the efficiency of the soil drainage. A rain
which lasts long may finally bring the soil to a state approaching
saturation, and then begin to have an erosive action, though it had
none at first.
At best, rain-water translocation is of intermittent action. Rain
storms of sufficient violence to have any appreciable effect are of
only occasional occurrence in ordinary climates, and in many climates
they are very rare indeed. The proportion of time in the year during
which rain water is actually running over the surface in the ordinary
humid areas is certainly less than 5 per cent. The heavy rains,
which alone are active, are usually of short duration. Finally, rain-
water translocation, as mentioned above, is essentially local. It
may produce an effective mixing of the surface of any one field (pro-
vided conditions of slope are favorable) but further than this it can
not go unassisted.
20 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
The sphere of river and stream action is in some ways even more
limited, because, not alone must all action be down hill, but it must
be on the relatively small surface actually reached by the water.
The streams themselves can attack only their own beds, and were they
dependent on their own resources for their supply of detrital mate-
rial, it would be reduced to small fractions of that which they now
carry. The bed, when once established, is usually attacked relatively
slowly and the supply of material on the banks would soon be ex-
hausted were it not kept up by other agents. Of course, as a matter of
fact, streams are not dependent on their own exertions for their
supply of detritus. Loose material is continually washed into them
by the rain; and, where the bordering slopes are steep, much material
falls and creeps into them under the action of gravity. However,
rain wash, as just pointed out, is intermittent in its action, and soil
creep affects only the soil immediately adjacent to the stream, and
materially affects that only when the slopes are steep. Further, the
access of detritus to the streams by either of these methods is in large
measure prevented by a border of vegetation along the banks, and,
owing to the plentiful supply of water which they furnish to the soil on
their banks, all streams tend to produce such vegetal borders and
thus themselves to limit the supply of detritus which reaches them.
Always, however, to limit it, and never to shut it off entirely, since
some eroded material will find its way in, in spite of all vegetal or
other obstacles.
Some rivers (and occasionally smaller streams) are so situated that
they are able to attack directly deposits of alluvial material which
they themselves, or other rivers, have laid down in previous epochs.
The lower Mississippi, the Ganges, the Yangtsekiang, and the Fo, are
examples. Such rivers are not limited to the action of rain water and
of their smaller tributaries for their supply of suspended material,
since they by their own action can obtain such material from their
banks. Such a procedure, however, is but one step in the process of
translocation. The alluvial material must have come from some-
where. The river has simply juggled it a bit before passing it finally
into the sea. Material derived from the banks would not last for-
ever, and in general what is taken away at one time or one place is
replaced at another. The ultimate source of the river load is farther
back. This is still true of the Chinese rivers, though the amount
of alluvial material directly available is there so enormous that the
river may be considered as having a practically inexhaustable supply
of soil material always open to the attack of the stream itself. The
loess ° is so great in extent that eons will be required for its complete
degradation. But the loess is not a primary material. It has already
been subjected to much translocation, and the existence of this appar-
o On the Chinese loess, see p. 126 et seq.
THE LIMITATIONS OF WATER TRANSLOCATION. 21
ent exception does not shake the conclusion that rivers in general
are greatly limited in their powers of attack, and require the assistance
of other agents to complete their supply of detrital material.
But, by rain wash and stream movement acting together, the
surface waters have a reasonably large range of attack. There are
but few localities where the surface is not somewhat subject to the
erosive action of water, and the suspended load of a river generally
represents to some degree the soil of the whole of its drainage area;
well enough at least to give river deposits all necessary heterogeneity.
A much more serious limitation to the action of rivers and streams
lies in their inability to deposit their load except where their waters
actually flow. However well charged be the river water with the
various soil forming materials, no benefit will accrue to the land lying
higher than the flood level, and in nearly all river basins these lands far
exceed in area and value those which are occasionally subject to flood.
The action of running water is limited,- therefore, in that the
streams are restricted, both in attack and deposition, to the surface
actually covered; and in that the main source of supply of extraneous
material to the streams, namely, rain wash, is very intermittent in
its action. The most serious restriction is that of deposition, since
never more than a small secti&n of the land surface can under pres-
ent conditions be subject to cover by flood waters. Larger soil areas
may be found in which river deposition has played a part in the past,
though it has long ceased to do so. Such are the alluvial lands in
river bottoms, and on terraces, old flood plains, etc. When the
product of large rivers, these are of course thoroughly mixed and
very fertile, but they make up no large percentage of the available
farm lands. Of the soils usually (and rightly) classed as alluvial,
the larger proportion are the products of the present or past action
of small streams, and the sediments of these streams, being derived
from smaller and less diversified drainage areas, do not compare with
river sediments in heterogeneity or fertilizing value. It is not prob-
able that any major proportion of the present arable soil is now
receiving or has received river or stream sediments of sufficient
diversity to be of material assistance in the maintenance or increase
of heterogeneity.
At the present day the one translocating action of water which is
most important in the maintenance of heterogeneity and fertility is
not the addition of new material to the soil, but the removal of old
material from it. By the constant and normal removal of surficial
soil through the streams into the lakes and oceans, the soil layer is
pushed gradually into the underlying deposits, and secures therefrom
fresh, unweathered, and unexhausted materials. In this way water
translocation is of great and indubitable importance, but in the sup-
ply of new material by cross-surface translocation it must in all
probability yield in importance to the action of the wind.
22 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND. !
WIND TRANSLOCATION.
i
The importance of the wind as a geologic agent has been recognized
by many geologists, and its action on the soil has been noted in
most general works on the subject. 6 In addition to these incidental
notices, general papers on the geologic action of the wind have been
published by Czerny, c Walther, d and Udden, € while Bychikhin,/
Hensele,* BfBletskfl/ Engelhardt, ' and Stahl-Schroeder * have written
on the general action of wind on the soil.*
Most of these and other writers who have discussed the geological
action of the wind have confined themselves in the main to the more
striking examples of its work, as, e. g., sand dunes, dust and sand
storms, the formation of extensive eolian deposits, etc. These
phenomena are naturally the ones which most attract attention,
because in them the agency of the wind is easily discernible, but,
though geologically important, they are less often agriculturally so,
since they occur mostly in the more arid regions, where extended
agriculture is impossible. So much has attention been confined to
these practically arid region phenomena that soil students in general
consider the wind as specifically a desert agent and of little, if any,
importance in the humid regions. This is by no means the case. It
will be shown below that large quantities of soil material are every-
where being moved about by the winds, and this transfer, by assisting
the mixing of soils, has been, and is, of the utmost importance to
<*6lie de Beaumont — Lemons de geologie pratique, vol. 1, pp. 183, 200 (1847);
Von Lasauht— Encyclop. der Naturw., Abt. II 1: 68-80 (1882); Penck— Mor-
phologie der Erdoberflache, vol. 1, pp. 254-259 (1894); Lapparent — Lemons de
geographie physique, 2d ed., pp. 249-261 (1898); Squinabol — Cenni di geografica
fisica e di geologica, p. 32 et seq. (1900); A. Geikie — Textbook of geology, 4th ed.
vol. 1, pp. 432-446 (1903); Chamberlin and Salisbury— Geology, vol. 1, pp. 20-39
(1904).
& See, e. g.: A. D. Hall— The soil, p. 10 (1903); Merrill— Rocks, rock-weathering,
and soils, 2d ed., pp. 280-286 (1906); Burkett— Soils, pp. 15-16 (1907); S. W.
Fletcher— Soils, pp. 18-20 (1907); Hilgard— Soils, pp. 8-10 (1906), etc.
cPeterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 48, 1876.
<*Abh. K. sachs. Ges. Wiss. Leipzig 16: 345-570 (1891); Himmel und Erde 10:
259-267, 301-311 (1898); and Das Gesetz der Wustenbildung, 1900.
tJour. geol. 2; 318-331 (1894), and The mechanical composition of wind deposits,
Augustana Lib. Pub. No. 1, 1898.
/The influence of the wind on the soil (Russian), 1891; and Trudy Imp. vol.
ekon. obshch. 1892: 312-390.
fForech. Geb. Agric.-Phys. 16: 311-364 (1893).
A Mat. izuch. russ. pochv 9: 1-40 (1895).
i Khozfain 1895 : 633-634.
iPoln. entsik. russ. selsk. khoz. 3: 163-175 (1900); Selsk. khoz. i Uesov. 196:
363-378 (1900).
* A large part of these articles is devoted to the action of the wind on the mois-
ture, gases, and temperature of the soil, subjects which are outside the scope of the
present discussion.
WIND TRANSLOCATION. 28
agriculture. This constant drift of blown material has largely passed
unnoticed, because it does not of itself attract attention; its results
are slowly produced, and when complete are difficult to distinguish
from the results of other agencies. Where special conditions exist,
special manifestations are developed; and these being unusual and
striking, attract attention entirely out of proportion to their true
importance. The wind must be considered as active everywhere.
In a geological sense it is perhaps most active in arid regions, where
the surface is dry and easily attacked and where protective vegeta-
tion is absent; but, agriculturally considered, its activity in humid
regions is of much greater importance on account of the greater pro-
ductive value of the lands affected.
It is, of course, true that the arid-region manifestations of wind
action may indirectly affect the humid regions, as, e. g., when a dust
storm originating in the Sahara carries material to Southern Europe,
or when desert sands are blown into a river, to be deposited along its
lower course. Neither are the special manifestations of wind action,
such as sand dunes and dust storms, strictly confined to deserts,
though most frequent therein.
It should be noted that the wind is not subject to the factors which
limit the action of water, as discussed in the last chapter (p. 18).
The wind does not move (that is, not directly) under the action of
gravitation, and therefore it may, and does, move either up or down
hill, carrying its load with it. The preponderance of translocation is
naturally from higher to lower levels, but there is much in the oppo-
site direction. 6 In area of attack the wind is complementary to water.
It works on the areas upon which water does not, for water-covered
areas are naturally not exposed to the wind. And since the areas
covered by water are enormously less than those not so covered,
the wind has greatly the advantage. With regard to areas of deposi-
tion, the wind has no limits whatever. It can deposit anywhere.
Then, too, the wind is constantly active, or nearly so, and thereby
avoids the intermittence which is characteristic of much water action.
But if the wind escapes the limitations which are forced on water
translocation, it has no less serious ones of its own. On account of
the greater tenuity of air, the atmosphere has a specific transporting
power much less than that possessed by water, and is much more
closely limited in the size and weight of particles which it can handle.
Further, a surface is much more easily protected from the wind than
from the action of running water. Vegetation or surface moisture
« See, however, authorities cited on pp. 105-107.
6Cf. W. M. Davis— Jour. geol. 18: 384 (1905); Penck— Amer. jour. Bci. (4) 19 1
167 (1905).
« Areas covered by oceans and permanent lakes are, of course, excluded from con-
sideration.
24 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
will prevent wind erosion much more completely than they will erosion
by water.
The erosive and translocating activity of either wind or water is
determined by a balance of various factors, some of which are favoring
and some opposing, and the actual activity in any individual case will
depend on the relative values of these factors. Those favorable to
wind erosion are not always the same as those favorable to erosion
by water, and consequently what increases wind action may decrease
water action, and vice versa, and whether wind or water is most active
in any particular region depends again on a balance of the factors.
In an arid region wind has the advantage; in certain other places
water action becomes much more important; while in still others, as,
e. g., on rocky mountain slopes, both agents are perhaps equally
active.
In order to show clearly the importance of wind action on soils,
it is necessary to discuss the manner and manifestations of its action
in more detail, paying particular attention to the importance of
constant drift of soil, as mentioned above, but not neglecting the more
unusual phenomena of dunes, sand storms, etc. These need discus-
sion not only for the sake of completeness and on account of their
occasional agricultural importance, but also because in them the
phenomena are usually simple and apparent, and are consequently
easier of examination and interpretation.
THE MECHANICS OF WIND TRANSLOCATION.
In order to be transported by the wind, material must first be lifted
from the surface, and any discussion of the mechanics of wind trans-
location must therefore be prefaced by some consideration of the
means by which the air currents attack the surface and acquire their
load of detrital material. Loose dust and sand can be directly at-
tacked by the wind, but rocks and other more or less indurated
materials must first be disintegrated or abraded. This disintegra-
tion is largely performed by the general weathering agents, and the
wind is usually an agent of removal rather than an agent of attack;
but under certain conditions it is possible for the wind to attack and
wear away even the hardest rocks, and this process may conveniently
be called corrasion — the *ord employed by Powell a to designate the
similar action of flowing water loaded with detritus in mechanically
attacking the material over which it flows.
WIND CORRASION— SAND-BLAST ACTION.
The corrasive power of the wind is due altogether to the dust and
sand which it carries, acting in the same manner as the well-known
<* Science 12 : 229-233 (1888). The term has already been applied to eolian action
by Pasearge (Naturw. Wochens. 16 : 371 [1901]) and others.
THE MECHANICS OF WIND TRANSLOCATION. 25
sand blast much employed as a cutting and polishing agent. Rock
corrasion by natural sand blast was first geologically described from
the San Bernardino Pass, California, by Blake a in 1855. It has
been many times observed in deserts, on seacoasts, and in all locali-
ties where drifting sand is common. 6 General discussions of the
phenomena have been published by Gilbert, Obruchev, d Walther,*
o Proc. Amer. assoc. adv. sci. 9: 216-220 (1856), Amer. jour. sci. (2) 20: 178-181
(1855), and Pacific Railway Repts., vol. 5, p. 92 (1856). The process had been earlier
noted in brief by several desert travelers, especially Wellsted (loc. cit., in note & below).
& See Wellsted— Travels in Arabia, vol. 2, p. 33-34, 204 (1838); Newberry— Geol-
ogy of the Ives Expedition, pp. 17, 24 (1861); Fraas— Aus dem Orient, p. 200 (1867);
Stowe — Trans. New Zealand inst. 5: 105-106 (1873); Naumann — Neues Jahrb. Min.
1874: 337-361; Heim— ibid. 1874=: 953-959; Kayser— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 27;
966 (1875); Ramsay— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 34 : 87 (1878); Rohlfe— Libyschen Wuste,
p. 59 (1875); Holland— Rev. Bci. (3) 1: 611 (1881); Weisgerber— Rev. archeol. 2: 4
(1881); Mickwite— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1885, II: 177; Narrative "Challenger" Expedi-
tion, vol. 1, p. 373 (1885); De Geer— Geol. f6ren. f6rh. 8: 501-513 (1886); Bajolle— Le
Sahara de Ouargla, p. 16 (1887); Hettner — GebirgBbau und Oberflachengestaltung der
S&chsischen Schweiz, p. 292 (1887); Stapff— Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 14: 48-49
(1887); Jakel— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 39: 287 (1887); Oldham— Rec. Geol. surv. India
21 : 159 (1888); Contejean— -Compt. rend. 108 : 1208-1209 (1889); Choisy— Documents
Mission Algene, v. 1, p. 327 (1890); Rolland— Geologic Sahara algerien, p. 215-217
(1890); Pechuel-Lfische— Ausland 65 : 446 (1892); Steenstrup— Geol. foren. fdrh. 14 1
493(1892); Brackebusch— Peterm. Mitth. 39: 156 (1893); L6czy— Reise Grafen Bela
Szechenyi, vol. 1, pp. 507-508 (1893); Beck— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 46: 537-546
(1894); Goldschmidt— Tschennak's Min. Mitt. 14:131-141 (1894); Baltzer— Mitth.
naturf. Ges. Bern 1895: 28-29; Obruchev— Verh. Imp. min. Ges. St. Petersburg 33 :
249-255 (1895); Fruh— Globus 67: 117-120 (1895); Bain— Iowa Geol. surv. 8: 337
(1897); Cornish— Geog. jour. 15: 16 (1900); Walther— Wustenbildung, p. 44, 51-52,
101 (1900); Beadnell— -Compt. Rend. Gong. geol. intern. 8: 857 (1900); Abel— Jahrb.
geol. Reichsanst. 51: 25-40 (1901); Futterer— Verh. Ges. deut. Naturf. Arzte 73, II
1: 227-229 (1901), Geog. Zs. 8: 261-266, 335-338 (1902); La T ouch e— Mem. Geol.
surv. Ind. 35: 10-11 (1902); Paaearge — Loc. cit. in a, p. 26; Brunhes— Oompt. rend.
135: 1133 (1902); J u lien— Ann. N. Y. acad. eci. 14: 152-153 (1902); Barron and
Hume— Topography eastern desert of Egypt, p. 288-289 (1902); RusBell— U. S. Geol.
surv. Bull. 199: 108, 122, 144 (1902); Johnsen— Centbl. Min. 1908: 593-597,
662; Stein— Sand buried ruins of Khotan, pp. 307, 353, 368, 421, 430, 436 et al.
(1903); Koken— Centbl. Min. 1903: 625-628; A. P. Davis— U. S. Geol. surv. Water
supp. pap. 73: plate 5 (1903); Philippi — Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 56: Monatsb. 64-67
(1904); Foureau — Documents scientifiques Mission saharienne, vol. 1, p. 217-221
(1904); Ivchenko— Ann. geol. min. Run. 7, I: 57-58 (1904); 8, I: 135-138 (1906);
Lomas— Proc. Liverpool geol. soc. 10: 192 (1905-6); J. Ball— Aswan Cataract, p. 112
(1907); Barron— Topography Western Sinai, p. 158, 216 (1907); Ferrar— Rept. Nat.
Antarctic Exped. 1901-*, Nat. Hist. 1: 87-89 (1907); Barron— Topography between
Cairo and Suez, p. 61, 116-117 (1907); Cross— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 19: 53-62
(1908); Hume— Cairo sci. jour. 2: 318 (1908); Werth— Deut. sud-polar Expedition
1901-3, vol. 2, p. 168-169 (1908); Gibson— Brit, assoc. Geol. photos. (2) No. 2879,
desc. p. 10.
e Proc. Amer. assoc. adv. sci. 23, II: 26-29 (1874); Amer. jour. sci. (3) 9: 151-152
(1875).
* Loc. cit.
« Einleitung in der Geologic als historische Wiasenschaft, p. 589-592 (1894).
26 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
Passarge,* and Brunhes. 6 Chatley* discusses briefly the mechanics
of the phenomena. Rocks which have been subjected to wind
^^ corrasion usually have a smooth and hi ghly p olished though fre-
quently irregular surface, sometimes with projecting crystals and
ridges of the harder minerals, or with cavities (like pot holes) where
softer parts have been worn away.* Blown sand is supposed also to
be responsible for the faceted pebbles frequently found in deserts,
on glacial sand plains, or on other sandy and wind-swept areas. 4
«Naturw. Wochens. 16: 369-373 (1901).
h Mem. Accad. Nuovi Lincei (5) 21 : 136-148 (1903).
cThe force of the wind, p. 77-80 (1909).
<* These corrasion forms are sometimes simulated by atmospheric (chemical) decay.
See Choffat — Comm. Direccao trab. geol. Portugal 3 : 17-22 (1895-6); Ivchenko — Ann.
geol. min. Russie 7, I: 216-217 (1904); Tuckett-Geol. mag. (5) 1: 12-13 (1904);
Lake— Ibid., p. 89; Bonney— Ibid., p. 388-392; Baron—Ibid., (5) 2: 17 (1905).
« It was once supposed by many geologists that these pebbles had been formed
by the mutual attrition of stones in the beds of the glacial torrents. For this opinion
see Braun — Verh. Berliner Ges. Anthrop. 1870-71: 103; Meyn — Zs. deut. geol. Ges.
24: 414 (1872); Keilhack— Jahrb. K. preuss. geol. Landesanst. 1883: 173, 1884:
210-238; Berendt— Ibid., 1884: 201; Wahnschaffe— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 36: 411
(1884); Theile — Sitzungsb. Ib\b Dresden 1885: 35-36. The now universal opinion
is that they are formed by sand-blast corrasion, though the initial form of the pebble
may have much to do with its final one. There exists a kind of faceted or planed
bowlders and pebbles of undoubted glacial origin, but these have only a very super-
ficial resemblance to the ordinary faceted pebbles or Drei-KanUr. The facets on these
glacial pebbles are produced by ice planation while the pebble is fixed in the bed
over which the ice is passing and which it is planing down. See Blanford — Kept.
Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1886 : 630-631; Wynne— Ibid., pp. 631-632; I. C. Russell— Bull.
Geol. soc. Amer. 1: 120 (1890); Koken and Noetling— Centbl. Min. 1903: 97-103;
Koken— Ibid., p. 625-628; Philippi— Ibid., 1904: 737-738, 1905: 655, and Neuee
Jahrb. Min., 1906, I: 71-80, and others in bibliography.
For descriptions of occurrences of faceted pebbles and discussions of their eolian
origin, see the works cited in the bibliography under the following authors: Abel, E. W.
Andrews, Barron (Topography between Cairo and Suez, p. 116-117), Bather, Beasley,
Berendt, Bergt, Brackebusch (p. 156), W. D. Brown, Cadell, van Calker, van Galker
and Tenne, Cazalis de Fondouce, Dames, Dawkins, Enys, Fegrceus, Ferrar, Fontannes,
Futterer (Geog. Zs. 8: 335-338 [1902]), Gagel, Geinitz, Geiseler, George, Goebel, Gold-
schmidt, Gottsche (Sedimentiir-Geschiebe Schleswig-Holstein, p. 6), J. W. Gregory
(Dead Heart of Australia, p. 26), Gutbier, Harll, HedstrGm, Heim, Hogbom, Hunting-
ton (Pulse of Asia, p. 148), Kayser, Klemm (Erl. sp. K., p. 19-20), P. G. Krause, Laufer,
Lenz (Timbouctou, vol 2, p. 384), Lisbfta, Mackie, Mares, Meyn (Abh. geol. Spec.
Karte Preuss. 1 : 652, 666, 686), Mickwitz, Milthers, Mugge, Nathorst, Papp, Prest-
wich (Geology, vol. 1, p. 145), Preussner, Adolf Sauer, Sauer and Chelius,
Steenstrup, Steinmann, Stone, Suess, Thomson, Travere, TutkovskH, Verworn,
Virchow, Vorwerg, Wagner, Wahnschafife, Walther, Wilmer, Wiman, Wittich, Wold-
Kch, and Wood worth. See also Abel, Baltzer, De Geer, Jakel, Johnsen, Koken,
Mickwitz, and Steenstrup; loci citati in note 6, p. 25. Gutbier 's articles are the
first notices of occurrences and those of Travere and of Enys contain the first sugges-
tions of eolian origin. Mugge and Milthers give good resumes of present knowledge.
Occurrences in the western United States are described by Blake (loc. cit., note a,
p. 25), Gilbert (loc. cit., note c, p. 25), and George (loc. cit. in bibliography).
Occurrences in New England are described in the articles by Stone and Woodworth,
cited in the bibliography. The latter gives references to earlier New England literature.
THE MECHANICS OF WIND TRANSLOCATION. 27
Experiments on the geologic action of the sand blast have been
published by Egleston,* De Geer,* Preussner, Thoulet,* Harl6,*
HedstrOm/ and W. D. Browne
Materials other than rocks are also frequently attacked by blown
sand. Trees and plants are injured/ wooden structures abraded, 1
exposed glass articles etched/ etc. The telegraph wire along the
Trans-Caspian Railway had to be removed after eleven years because
in that time its diameter had diminished one-half because of sand
blast corrasion.* The erosion of the wooden telegraph poles of the
Southern Pacific Railway through the San Bernardino Pass in 7
southern California is so great that the railway has been forced
to protect them by piles of rock or by short supplementary posts
placed on the windward side where they will take the corrasion and
sa ve the main poles. 1 Egleston describes the injury to building stones
by blown sand and notes the gradual effacement of city tombstone
inscriptions by dust blown from the street.** Blown snow crystals
have a corrasive action similar to that of sand but less violent.*
However, the amount of dlbris derived from the sand blast corra-
sion of the rocks is not large, and is unimportant both to geology
and to agriculture. The material moved by the wind comes mainly
a Trans. Amer. soc. civ. engs. 15: 655 (1886).
»Geol. ffiren. fdrh. 8: 501-513 (1886).
cZe. deut. geol. Gee. 89: 502 (1887).
* Compt. lend. 104: 381-383 (1887); Ann. mines (8) lit 199-224 (1887).
« Bull. Soc. geol. France (3) 28: 70 (1900).
/Geol. fdren. f5rh. 18: 601 (1896), 25: 413^420 (1903).
fProc. Liverpool geol. soc. 10: 128-131 (190&-4).
* See p. 164 et seq.
< Reade— Geol. mag. (4) 8 : 193-194 (1901).
/Beck— Zs. deut. geol. Gee. 46: 540 (1894); Sokolov— Die Dflnen, p. 6 (1894).
Merrill (Eng. mag. 2 : 605 [1892]) mentions a window pane from one of the Cape Cod
light-houses which had its transparency destroyed by sand blast during a single storm.
* Walther— Wttstenbildung, p. 52 (1900).
* For photographs and descriptions of sand-blast action in this area (where it is
probably more active than anywhere else in the United States) see Mendenhall — U. S. ^y^^y
Geol. surv. Water supp. pap. 225: 26 (1909). l
*» Trans. Amer. soc. civ. engs. 15 : 654-658 (1886). Futterer has noticed the corra-
sion of building stones in Heidelberg Castle — Mitth. Badischen Landesanst. 8t
471-496 (1897). For notices of the injury of Egyptian monuments see Petrie — Proc.
Roy. geog. soc. 11: 648 (1889); Bolton— Trans. N. Y. acad. sci. 9: 120 (1890); Wal-
ther — Einleitung in der Geologic als historische Wissenschaft, p. 591 (1894); Lomas —
Proc. Liverpool geol. soc. 10: 192 (1905-6). On the effects of corrasion on the ruins
of the ancient cities of east Turkestan see Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 2, p. 780 (1899);
Stein— Sand buried ruins of Khotan, p. 368 et al. (1903), Ancient Khotan, p. 107, 243,
327, 328 et al. (1907), and Geog. jour. 34 : 16, 17, 21, 27, 35 (1909).
* Clarence King— Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, vol 1, p. 527 (1878); Davi-
son — Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 50: 478-479 (1894) and authorities there cited; Baltzer —
Mitth. naturf. Ges. Bern 1895: 35; Svenonius— Geol. fdren. fern. 21: 569 (1899);
Tschirwinsky— Zs. Gletscherk. 2: 111-112 (1907); Ferrar— Nat. Antarctic Exped.
1901- 4, Nat. hist. 1 : 89 (1907).
28 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
y from that already loosened and disintegrated by the general weather-
ing agents. Exposed deposits of such material are rapidly attacked,
the detached and blown grains acting as tools, to loosen and remove
further material. The soil is of course easily attacked in this way
and is saved from complete removal only by the existence of certain
agencies which tend to protect it.
PROTECTIONS AGAINST EROSION BT WIND.
The chief of these natural protectors are vegetation and surface
moisture, and nearly all lands share to some degree in the benefits
they afford, though in few is the protection perfect enough entirely to
prevent attack. The protective action of vegetation is due to its
preventing the contact of moving air with the soil surface. The air
in the layer next the ground is entangled in the stalks and leaves of
the plants and either its motion is entirely prevented or its velocity
is greatly reduced. To act in this way the plants must of course be
more or less closely matted, and isolated individuals are compara-
tively useless, as the wind is able to reach the soil between them with
little or no loss of velocity. That form of vegetation is most efficient
which provides (1) plants spaced most closely and (2) plants reach-
ing highest into the air. Thus grasses and trees are found in prac-
tice to offer the best protection — the first because of the production
of a close mat near the ground, and the second because of the height
they attain. .The real criterion of the protective action of any
particular form of vegetation is naturally the ratio of the average
height of the plants to the average distance between them. The
greater this ratio, the greater the protection.
The protective action of vegetation is not, however, entirely due
to the reduction of the wind velocity at the surface, for the roots
of the plants also act as binders in holding the soil grains together
and preventing erosion either by wind or water. Possibly much
of the efficiency of the grasses in preventing erosion is due to the
extensive interlaced root system which is developed near the surface.
The layer of decaying vegetable matter which accumulates under an
established vegetation is also an opponent of wind action. It is
usually pretty well held together by undecomposed stalks and
branches and acts as a felted covering which is not readily broken
by the wind. Its efficiency is, however, largely due to the fact that
it tends to remain moist, for if its moisture be lost, much of the resist-
ance to erosion is lost also, and the individual leaves, etc., are soon
blown away. The vegetable matter in the soil itself (humus) is not
unimportant in enabling resistance to the wind because of its tendency
<s The shape of the plant will of course have some influence on the effective distance
between plants. For instance, a low bushy species will furnish more protection
than a tall one with a single stem, though the distance between plants be the same
in each case.
PROTECTIONS AGAINST EROSION BY WIND. 29
to conserve moisture, and also to supply agglutinabt materials which
stick together the grains of the soil and help maintain its coherence.
The actual efficiency of any particular vegetal cover in preventing
wind erosion is rather difficult to estimate. It is probable that sod
and full-grown forests give nearly perfect protection, though even
in this case some wind action occurs when the soil is accidentally
exposed through the uprooting of a tree ° or brought to the sur-
face by earthworms or burrowing animals. The other forms' of
vegetation decrease more and more in efficiency with decrease in
the ratio of plant height to plant distance. At the lower end of the
series stand the plants common in semiarid regions which grow
singly or in isolated clumps, and whose action in preventing wind
erosion is very slight. Whether the natural vegetation of any
piece of land will prevent its being acted upon by the wind depends
largely on its water supply. If the land be kept sufficiently moist
the vegetation is usually thick enough and high enough to form a
mom or less perfect protection, while an arid soil has practically ne
vegetation and therefore no protection. All gradations between
these two extremes are possible and are found in nature.
The vegetal covering of cultivated fields (excepting pastures) •»
seldom such as to furnish a sufficiently dbmplete protection. Cul-
tivated plants are usually spaced much more widely than wild ones
and in many cases a large part of the area of the field is entirely
bare of vegetation. These spaces between plants and between rows
of plants are easily attacked by the wind, but more important is the
fact that cultivated fields are during a part of each year bare of any
vegetation whatever. The operations of plowing, harrowing, etc.,
have for their main objects the destruction of the natural vegetation
(weeds) and the loosening of the soil. In both ways wind erosion
is assisted and it is therefore apparent that cultivation will, other
things equal, tend to increase the amount of soil moved by the wind,
so much so in some cases that the clearing of the natural vegetation
preparatory to cultivation has led to serious loss of soil by blowing. 6
The second great protection against wind erosion is a moist condi-
tion of the surface. The presence of films of moisture between the
soil particles sets up forces due to surface tension. These forces
tend to hold the particles together. If, therefore, the surface of the
soil be moist there will exist a force strongly opposing the action of
the wind in detaching soil particles and in many cases competent
entirely to prevent attack.* It is seldom, however, that the actual
surface is moist. There are usually a few grains which are dry
enough to lack the surrounding water films. These are blown
a See Shaler— Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. eurv. 12 : 273-274 (1892).
& See pp. 164-172 below.
cSee Bull. 10, Bur. of Soils, and Bull. 50, ditto, pp. 49-51.
<*See e. g. the experiments of Henaele— Forsch. Geb. agric. Phye. 16 1 363 (1893).
30
MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
away, exposing the grains below, which are dried by the wind and
themselves blown away, enabling the wind gradually to work its
way even into a soil which is comparatively wet.° In order that there
may be a complete protection against wind action it is necessary that
moisture be supplied from below by capillary rise as rapidly as it
is removed on the surface by evaporation. 6 A soil may be quite
moist and still be subject to wind action owing to the presence of a
very thin dry layer on the surface which is renewed as rapidly as
it is removed.
This drying effect of the wind and consequent blowing of even wet
soil is well illustrated by phenomena observed on the sandy soils of
Anne Arundel County, Md. These soils blow a great deal at all
times, and especially when freshly plowed, but contrary to what
might be expected they blow more when plowed wet than when
plowed dry. The fact that some blowing takes place on the wet
soil is not difficult to understand. Owing to the sandy character
of the soil, as shown by the mechanical analysis given in Table I, it
is very permeable and well drained and the rain water, though rap-
idly absorbed, is as rapidly drained .away to lower levels, leaving in
the surface layers only that water which is held by capillary and
hygroscopic action in the films about the grains.
Table I. — Mechanical analysis of soil from Severn, Anne Arundel County, Md., which
is much subject to blowing.
Grade.
Sitt.
Name.
Per
cent.
Grade.
•
Site.
Name.
Per
cent.
1
2
Mm.
2 -1
1 - .5
.5 - .25
.26- .1
0.2
24.4
65.4
16.4
5
6
7
Mm.
0. 1-0.06
.06- .006
Below .006
Very fine sand....
Silt
1.5
2.3
3
Clay
1.1
It is apparent from surface tension relations d that the capillary
films on the large particles of a sandy soil are more easily broken than
those on the fine particles of a clayey soil, i. e., a sandy soil loses its
capillary moisture more rapidly, and is more rapidly dried out (on
the surface) by the wind. For this reason a sandy soil always tends
to blow more when wet than does a soil composed of finer particles,
and consequently is less protected by moisture than is a loam or
a This action has been noticed by Bernard in the Sahara — Compt. rend. Soc. geog.
1890: 323. Another illustration is the observation that the sand of the Gape Town
(South Africa) dunes blows badly when the wind is dry but hardly at all when it is
wet, Braine — Proc. Inst. civ. engs. 150 : 388 (1902). Cf . also note a, on page 58 below.
&On evaporation from soils and consequent capillary rise, see Bull. 38, Bureau of
Soils, pp. 18-24 (1907).
cThat the wind can attack the soil to a considerable degree in a climate which is
not perfectly arid has been noted by Willis in China (Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington Pub. 54 : 247 [1907]). See also the instances of damage by soil blowing cited
on pp. 164-167 below.
<* See Bull. 10, Bureau of Soils.
PROTECTIONS AGAINST EROSION BY WIND. 81
day. Clay soils in particular hold on to their moisture so tena-
ciously that they blow practically not at all when wet.
That more blowing should be observed on the freshly plowed soil
when moist than when dry is more difficult of explanation, but is
probably due to a looser texture in the moist soil. It has been
shown by Cameron and Gallagher that the structure of a soil is
dependent on its water content and that for each soil there is a cer-
tain "critical moisture content" which corresponds to the maximum
of flocculation and looseness of texture. This critical moisture con-
tent is also that content at which water is most strongly held (mechan-
ically) by the soil. Amounts of water above this content can be
drained away quite readily, whereas below this point very little
water can be mechanically removed, even by centrifuging at very
high speeds. 6 On account of the exceptionally good drainage of
the soils under consideration their water content when wet would
probably be not much greater than the critical moisture content,
as water in excess of this quantity would flow to lower levels. Hence
the wet soil when stirred by plowing would take on the maximum
openness of structure of which it was capable and would be most
easily dried out superficially and blown away by the wind. The dry
soil, on the other hand, when stirred by plowing would tend to pack
more closely together and would hence be less open to attack. These
phenomena are in accord with the observation of Wesseley e that
dune sands are looser after having been moistened.
In deserts where there can be no protection by either vegetation
or moisture another protective agent is developed — the '' desert
pavement," recently well described by Tolman.* When loose mate-
<» Bull. 50, Bureau of Soils.
* Bull. 45* Bureau of Soils. The "critical moisture content" of Bulletin 50 and
the " moisture equivalent" of Bulletin 45 mean the same thing (see BuU. 50,
pp. 64-66). This same moisture content is identical with the so-called "optimum
water content" for the growth of plants (see BuU. 50, p. 57 et seq.).
c Flugsand, p. 62 (1873).
'Jour. geol. 17: 149-151 (1909). For the ideas expressed in this paragraph I am
largely indebted to suggestions received from Professor Tolman's papers and from
him personally.
The surface concentration of stones and pebbles in desert regions had previously
been observed by Blake— Kept. Pacific Rwy. Surv., vol. 5, p. 230 (1866); Bradley-
Ann. Kept. U.S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr. 6: 211-212(1873); WesBeley— Flugsand,
p. 50, 64 (1873); Gilbert— Kept. Wheeler Surv., vol. 3, p. 82 (1875); Tenison-Woods—
Jour, and Proc. Roy. soc. N. S. Wales 16: 84^85 (1882); Sokolov— Die Dunen, p. 12
note (1894); Walther— Wttstenbildung, chap. 9 (1900); Cholnoky— Foldtani Kdzldny
82: 136 (1902); Lomas— Trans. Liverpool geol. soc. 10: 190 (1906-6); Gregory— The
dead heart of Australia, p. 70 (1906); Ferrar— Kept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1907:
604-605; Hume — Cairo sci. jour. 2: 318 (1908); and others. Its protective action
seems, however, to have been first noted by Tolman (loc. cit.).
Of interest in this connection is the fact that the surface layers of desert sand are
apt to be coarser than those below — an observation made in Sinai by Bolton (Trans.
New York acad. sci. 9: 119 [1890]), and in Egypt by Cornish (Geog. jour. 15: 12
[1900]) and confirmed by the present writer at many places in the deserts of North
America.
?
} r i
82 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
rial containing pebbles or larger stones (e. g., ordinary mountain wash)
is exposed to wind action the finer dust and sand are blown away
and the pebbles gradually accumulate on the surface, forming a sort
of mosaic which protects the finer material underneath from attack.
This is the "desert pavement/' a good example of which is shown
in Plate I, figure 1 . It is obvious that a pavement will be formed as
soon as the wind has worked through a layer of heterogeneous mate-
rial sufficiently thick to contain one layer of pebbles; the actual
thickness depending upon the proportion of pebbles in the deposit.
This thickness will therefore form the practiced limit to the wind ero-
sion of that deposit, and in the heterogeneous deposits of ordinary
deserts this limiting thickness will be comparatively small. It is, of
course, true that the desert pavement is not absolutely permanent.
Its pebbles will yield slowly to corrosion and occasionally to fracture
by temperature change, and loose material may be removed from
underneath them during the rare periods of flowing water, or by the
"creep" of soil. The susceptibility of the pavement pebbles to
removal and change is shown by the rarity of perfect pavements.
There is almost always some uncovered space between the individual
pebbles and there are frequently bare spots in which the pebbles
are spaced more widely. Of many pavements examined by the
writer only two 6 have at all closely approached perfection. This
lack of perfection is, however, but a minor matter. Even though
it be far from a perfect one, a desert pavement is a most effective
protection to fine material beneath, and it is certain that the formation
of such pavements is a phenomenon of constant occurrence wherever
heterogeneous material is exposed to wind attack, 6 and of far-reaching
importance in limiting the eolian degradation of desert surfaces.
1 * The writer has seen and collected such fractured pebbles on the Colorado Desert
northeast of Superstition Mountain. They are, however, comparatively rare. For
another occurrence, see H6gbom— Geol. fdren. fflrh. 16: 387-390 (1894).
&A pebble pavement at Knob Station on the Southern Pacific Railway in the
Colorado Desert, California, and a small pavement of tufa fragments on the north
slope of Rattlesnake Butte, near Fallon, Nev. (This is the one shown in PI. I, fig. 1.)
Professor Tolman tells me that there is an extensive and still more perfect pavement
north of the Chocolate Mountains, California.
c The surface concentration of the larger fragments in heterogeneous deposits sub-
jected to wind erosion is not confined to deserts. "Desert pavements" in coastal
dune areas have been described by Richardson (Rept. Yorkshire phil. soc. 1902:
47) and Oldham (Mem. Geol. surv. India 34: 141 [1903]), and the writer has seen
typical examples on the dune lands of New Jersey and of the southern California
coast, and on the great dune area south of the Arkansas River in eastern Colorado and
western Kansas. There is a similar pavement of shell fragments covering a small
area on Monterey Peninsula, California, though here the possible action of man, birds,
or other animals can not be certainly excluded. Neither is it certain that the desert
pavement is always or exclusively the product of wind action. It is very probable
, that under proper conditions flowing water can produce a practically identical forma-
tion. The writer has examined pavements west of Hazen, Nev., which he believes
to be of this class. Cf. also Chelius and Vogel— Neues Jahrb. Mia. 1891, 1: 104.
Fio. 1. -Desert Pavement of Tufa Fragments near Fallon. Nev.
,1. 69, Buiuu of Soils U 5 Dept. ol A(i
Fig. 2.-Blown Sand Collecteo Behind Fence.
THE LIFTING OF EXPOSED MATERIAL, 83
In addition to these pavements, there are two other protections
against wind action which are of some importance in deserts; first,
the salt crusts, which, possessing more cohesion, are less easily
attacked than is the naked soil; and second, the surficial crusting
and baking not only of clays and loams but of fairly sandy soils as
well, the nature of which is not yet well understood, but the occur-
rence of which is familiar to all who have been much in desert coun-
tries. 4 The more complete discussion of these phenomena, while not
lacking in interest, would lead too far afield.
THE LIFTING OF EXPOSED MATERIAL.
The lifting of loose material lying exposed on the surface is largely
the work of eddies and irregularities of movement in the wind. In
the earlier discussions of fluid friction the moving fluid was consid-
ered as flowing past the stationary surface with no deformation of
its lines of flow, and all friction was assumed to take place at the
solid-fluid surface ("skin friction") or else between layers of fluid
parallel to that surface. The very thin layer immediately next the
surface was assumed stationary or moving with a very low velocity.
The next layer moves a little faster, the next a little faster still, etc.,
but all maintain their identity and there is no mixing of the layers.
Did this sort of thing actually occur in flowing fluids bhere would be
practically no lifting of material into the current. The lower layer
might become somewhat charged with suspended material but prac-
tically none would be able to rise to layers above. In nature, how-
ever, this simple laminated flow does not exist. Whatever may be
the true motion of flowing fluids it is undoubtedly very complex
and there is much mixing of the hypothetical layers of flow. McGee *
has recently elaborated a hypothesis with regard to flowing water
which considers* the fluid made up of discrete particles or "modules"
which move by "saltation" in a series of leaps, describing paths
which probably approach the parabola. If water flows in this way
it is easy to see how material can be picked up from the bottom and
carried along, the solid particles moving (as is known to be a fact)
in a saltatory manner similar to that ascribed to the hypothetical
water module. In any event it is certain that water flow is not
laminar and that there are innumerable eddies and cross-currents
which thoroughly mix the body of a stream and enable material to
be lifted from the bottom and carried along in suspension and in
saltation.
« An extreme case is the protection by the calcareous cementation of the soil parti-
cles into aggregates and layers as noticed by Russell on the Snake River plains in
Idaho. (U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 199 : 143 [1902]).
* Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 19 : 193-220 (1908).
53952*— Bull. 68—11 8
84 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Whether the phenomena of flowing water and of flowing air are
perfectly analogous is perhaps open to question, and at any rate the
air currents with which we are familiar are really but eddies in the
bottom of an ocean of air and hardly comparable with currents in
limited and confined masses of water like streams. It is, however,
certain, as has been shown by Langley, that the air currents are
exceedingly variable and made up of many conflicting cross currents
and eddies, and the hypothesis of laminar flow is just as inapplicable
to air as to water. The wind is made up of many momentary cur-
rents blowing upward and downward * as well as horizontally, and
what we call the "wind direction" is the resultant of these momen-
tarily variable directions and denotes the direction in which the
whole mass of air is moving rather than the direction of motion at
any particular place and particular instant. It is no matter whether
these cross currents and eddies be considered a characteristic con-
comitant of moving air (as seems probable) or whether they be
deemed accidental variations due to the interference of terrestrial
obstacles. The fact remains that they exist and are of great import-
ance in promoting the thorough mixing of the atmosphere and
enabling it to lift fine material from the surface of the ground. The
actual form of the eddies is unknown and is probably variable.
Whirling eddies are known to be efficient, but dust can probably be
lifted in many other ways.
The preceding discussion relates to the way in which surface deposits
are attacked and the material made available for the transporting
activity of the wind. The lifting of the finer material higher into
the atmosphere is accomplished in the same general way. The
atmosphere is in such general and constant circulation, vertical as
well as horizontal, that material fine enough to remain in suspension
for any appreciable time can be carried far above the surface simply
by the normal movement of the air currents. Material is also lifted
by whirlwinds as described on pages 83-88 and very fine dust is
carried up by the rising of masses of air under changes of tempera-
ture — the ordinary convectional circulation of the atmosphere.
<» "The Internal Work of the Wind," Smithsonian Con t rib. 27, No. 884 (1893);
Amer. jour. ari. (3) 47: 41-63 (1894).
& On the vertical component of the wind velocity see Abbe— Monthly weath. rev.,
81: 536-537 (1903); Dechevrens (with notes by Abbe and by Marvin)— ibid. 32:
118-121 (1904).
c On the presence and nature of vertical currents due to this cause see Schreiber —
Abh. K. Sachs, met. Inst. 3: 18-24(1898); Exner— Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wise.
Vienna, Abt. Ila, 112: 345-369 (1903); Besson— Met. Zs. 20: 398-409 (1903);
Eliae— Illus. aeron. Mitth. 8: 394-396 (1904); Hoffman— Beitrage Geophysik6: 543-
569 (1904); Conrad— Met. Ze. 22: 266-267 (1905); Clayton— Mon. weath. rev.
83: 390-391(1905).
. THE SOBTING OF MATERIAL BY THE WIND, £{>
THE SORTING OF MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Of course under equivalent conditions the smaller particles are
more easily moved by the wind, and consequently in attacking a
heterogeneous deposit the wind tends to make a selection, removing
the finer particles and leaving the coarser behind. 8 Professor Udden
in his excellent monograph * on this subject classifies wind deposits
as (1) lag gravels, which represent the coarse residuum from which
all finer material has been blown away; (2) drifting sands, which
can be readily moved along the surface but not lifted to any height;
(3) fine sands found in the lee of dunes ("lee sands"); and (4) dust,
which settles out slowly and may be carried considerable distances.
There is no sharp separation between these various classes, and each
grades into the next.
This sorting action of the wind depends not really on size but on
the mutual relations of mass, surface area, and shape. The forces
exerted by the wind against a suspended particle are due to the
impact of the air against the particle and to friction along its surface,
which forces vary with the size and shape of the particle, while the
only opposing force is that of gravity which varies with its mass.
It is of course possible to consider the forces acting between the air
and the particle as due entirely to impact; for, if gases be consid-
ered as composed of free moving particles, all manifestations of
gaseous "friction" are really due to the impact of particles of gas
against the solid surface. It is convenient, however, to make a
rough distinction between the "impact" forces due to the momentum
of the air which directly impinges on the body and the "frictional"
forces due to secondary impact and connected with the viscosity of
the air and similar effects. It is possible that this latter component
may include effects other than purely mechanical impact, as perhaps
electric or magnetic attractions, gravitational actions, etc.
The forces due to direct impact will vary (for any given wind
velocity) with the cross section of the particle in the plane perpen-
dicular to the wind direction and with the angle (or angles) which
the exposed surface makes with this direction; therefore, practically
with the cross section of the particle, its shape, and its orientation
relative to the wind. The forces due to friction will vary with the
area and configuration of the exposed surface. For particles of very
irregular shape — as, for instance, mica flakes — these relations are far
too complex for any analysis, except the general conclusion that ease
of suspension will increase with increasing irregularity of shape, and
of course with decrease of mass. However, for particles which
« Cf . the discussion of desert pavements on pp. 31-33 above.
* The mechanical composition of wind deposits, 1898.
86 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
approach the spherical form the relations are much simpler, and the
ease of transport can be fairly well represented by the ratio of the
surface area of the particle to its mass. With such regular particles
decrease of size (represented by the diameter) means increase of this
surface-mass ratio, and consequently small spherical particles are
more easily carried than large ones. Thus since most of the soil parti-
cles, and especially those classed as sand, are likely to be approxi-
mately spherical, their ease of transport is roughly dependent upon
their diameter, and they are sorted by the wind pretty closely accord-
ing to this dimension. The more irregular particles are more easily
carried and will be found among material which (if regular in shape)
is of smaller linear dimensions. As a practical conclusion of general
applicability it may be stated that the greater the surface-mass ratio
of a particle the more easily will it be suspended.
All this assumes that the particles under consideration have the
same specific gravity. If the specific gravities vary, either because
of difference of material or of internal cavities or inclusions, that
particle with the highest value will have the greatest mass per unit
surface and will consequently tend to fall most rapidly. This is well
illustrated by the fact that in showers of volcanic ash the heaviest
minerals, as magnetite, augito, etc., fall nearest the volcano, as was
observed for the Krakatoa eruption by Murray and Renard* and
by Judd, 6 at Vesuvius by Matteuci,* at Santa Maria by Brauns, d
and in dust from the recent West Indian eruptions by Schmelck.*
Another interesting example of air elutriation according to specific
gravity is the winnowing process employed to separate gold from
alluvial gravels in Mexico/ Central Australia,* and Central Asia,*
where water is too scarce to permit the employment of the ordinary
processes.
The result of this air sorting of blown material is that practically
all eolian deposits are remarkably uniform in grain, as has been
pointed out by Udden.'
Dune sands in particular are very uniform because made up of
material which can be drifted, but not raised, by the wind. Mate-
rial a little coarser is not moved at all and forms lag gravels, while
material a little finer is blown clear away. Indeed, the great uni-
•— ^^^"ii^— "^— ■— i«— ^^— — ■— •— ^""^"i""^~~^"«^iiii""i"""""""~«""~-"^""""i""™".
« Nature 29 : 588 (1884).
b Roy. Soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, p. 39; and Nature 29: 595 (1884).
cBoll. Soc. siam. ital. 6: 207-312 (1901).
'Centbl. Min. 1903: 290. Cf. Schottler— ibid., pp. 288-289.
eChemztg. 27: 34 (1903).
/ Personal communication from W J McGee.
9 Carnegie — Spinifex and sand, pp. 131-133 (1898).
* Huntington— Pulse of Asia, p. 197 (1907).
i Mechanical composition of wind deposits, pp. 60 et seq. (1898).
DEFLATION. 87
formity of eolian sands has been advocated by van den Broeck* and
by Beck* as a means of distinguishing them from sands deposited by
other means. Dust deposited from suspension in the air ("dust-
falls, 11 etc.), is also quite uniform, and in the case of falls of volcanic
dust the same is true of the material collected at any one place, d the
fineness increasing with distance from the volcano.
DEFLATION.
The complete blowing away of fine dust, leaving sand and coarser
material behind, is known as " deflation." • It is the eolian analogue
of the removal of water-borne silt by the rivers. By its means only
is the wind able to lower a surface on which it works. The finely
disintegrated material is continually removed from the surface and
the rocks and coarser fragments left exposed to the attack of the dis-
integrating and abrading agents.
It is because of this phase of wind action that the surfaces of deserts
are so uniformly sandy or stony. Any dust which is produced by
abrasion or other means (and there is a great deal) is at once blown
away, leaving only the particles which are too coarse to be
"deflated."' The phenomena are quite analogous to those con-
cerned in the formation of the "desert pavements 1 ' above described.
Rock disintegration (and especially the largely mechanical disintegra-
tion which obtains in deserts) leads to the production, progressively,
of stones, gravel, sand, and dust. If the dust be blown away, sand
is left, and if the sand be disintegrated or be itself drifted away, gravel
or bare rock is left. Or, if the floor of the desert be formed of already
disintegrated heterogeneous material, the finer part will be removed,
and the resulting surface will be sandy, gravelly, or rock-strewn,
depending upon the relative amounts of the materials of various fine-
ness in the original deposit and upon their relative rates of disinte-
gration or removal. Obviously the surface character of any par>
aNote in discussion of Briartr-Bull. Soc. geol. France (3) 8: 587 (1880).
• Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 46: 539 (1894).
cSee Herrmann— Annalen Hydrog. 31: 481 (1903).
* For an example from the West Indian fall of March 22, 1903 (at Barbados), see
report of an examination made by Doctor Gottsche, of Hamburg, in Annalen Hydrog.
31:270-271(1903).
« The term is due to Walther (Wttstenbildung, chap. 9 [1900]). For a discussion of
the advisability of employing it, see Passarge — Naturw. Wochens. 16 8 372 (1901), and
Walther, ibid., pp. 431-432. From philological considerations "efflation" would
probably be better, but "deflation' 1 has been so long and so generally used that it
seems inadvisable to make the change.
/ In the rare spots in which the desert surface is composed of clay or silt there is
always protection by moisture, alkali, chemical cementation, surface crusting, or some
similar agency. These spots are also usually places to which fine material is fre-
quently supplied (usually by water action), as, for example, the playaa.
y
88 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
ticular desert (excluding salt deserts) will depend upon the character
of the materials originally present' or being supplied, and upon the
relative rapidity with which they are disintegrated and removed.
The presence or supply of much resistant gravel will cause the for-
mation of a desert pavement (gravelly desert) ; the presence of much
sand (either original or as the result of disintegration of weakly resist-
ant gravel or rock) and the existence of conditions forbidding the
escape of this sand by drifting along the surface, will cause a sandy
desert, etc. Of course in the analysis of the origin of desert surfaces
7 agents other than eolian must be assigned their share. The question
4 is one of too great detail and complexity to be fully discussed here.
The process of eolian erosion and deflation of the d6bris has
recently been suggested in explanation of the origin of the peculiar
flat plains of the American deserts out of which rise isolated moun-
tains or mountain ranges. It has always been believed that these
plains were composed of immense thicknesses of rock d6bris rain-
washed from the higher land. The original valleys had been filled
up, leaving the higher mountains projecting as islands from a
solid sea of mountain waste. 5 McGee,' however, in 1896 announced
that at least a part of the plains of Sonora in northwestern Mexico
were not deep deposits of disintegrated materials, but were rock
floors comparatively thinly mantled with loose d6bris, and Keyes d
in 1903 found the same to be true of certain of thfe plains of New
Mexico and discovered that the underlying strata were not hori-
zontal, but greatly inclined, the approximately horizontal surface
being produced by the edgewise planing of these strata, evidently
by some erosive agent. At the same time Passarge e in studying a
similar, though geographically more mature, region in South Africa,
« At the inception of desert conditions.
& These conclusions follow from either the fold theory, or the faulted-block theory
of Basin Range structure. On these theories and the structure of the valleyB in
general see Powell — Geology Uinta Mts., p. 29 (1876); Clarence King— Explor. For-
tieth Parallel, vol. 1, p. 735 (1878); Dutton— Plateaus of Utah, p. 47 (1880); Gil-
bert— Surv. West of 100th Merid., Prog. Rept., p. 48-62 (1874); Russell— Ann. Rept.
U. S.Geol. surv. 4:443 (1884); and Monogr. 11: 26 (1886); Diller— Bull. U. S. Geol.
surv. 33: 15 (1886), and Bull. Phil. soc. Wash. 9:4-5 (1887); Le Conte— Amer. jour.
, sci. (8) 38:259 (1889); R. T. Hill— Topog. folio U. 8. 3: 8 (1900); Spurr— Bull. Geo^
"soc. Amer. 12:217-270 (1901); D. W. Johnson— Amer. geol. 31:135-139 (1903);
Davis— Science (n. s.) 14 : 457 (1901), Bull. Mus. comp. zool. 42 : 129-177 (1903), and
ibid. 49:17-56 (1905); M. R. Campbell— Bull. geol. soc. Amer. 14:551-552 (1904);
Keyes— Amer. geol. 33:19-23(1904); Herrick— ibid. pp. 376-381; Louderback— '
Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 15:343 (1904); Keyes— Jour, geol. 16:434-451 (1908).
cMcGee and Johnson— Nat. Geog. Mag. 7:127 (1896); McGee— fcull. Geol. soc.
Amer. 8:90(1897).
* Amer. Jour. Sci. (4) 15:207-210 (1903); Amer. geol. 34:160-164 (1904). His
Conclusions are more fully stated in his papers cited below.
«Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 56, Monatsb.: 193-215 (1904); Naturw. Wochens. 19 x 657-665'
(1904); and his comprehensive monograph, Die Kalahari (1904).
DEFLATION. 89
had come to the conclusion that the agent of this planation was the \/
wind a and that plains of this character with isolated steeply rising
mountains ("Inselberge") must be regarded as plains of eolian erosion.
This conclusion has been accepted by Keyes* and Hill 6 as apply-
ing to the deserts of the southwestern United States, but it has not
attained general acceptance and has been challenged in particular
by Tolman* on the ground that it is only ver y rarely, if at all, that * 4 ^
these desert plains (or "bolsons") are planed rock floors, but that
in the yast majority of cases they are really yalleys filled with d6bris
washed from the mountains, and unconsolidated except for occa- r
sional layers cemented by lime carbonate (so-called "caliche").
Tolman's conclusions are supported by well logs for certain of the
bolsons, and the writer has seen logs and other evidence which point
the same way in the case of a few others. For these the hypothesis
of eolian origin must be abandoned. This failure of the hypothesis
to be everywhere applicable does not, however, entirely discredit it.
Passarge's conclusions in the Kalahari have not been challenged,
and it is quite possible that even in North America the same processes
may have been determining in certain places, though in others they
seem certainly to have played a minor r61e. The question is one
which can be settled only after the acquiring of more exact and
accurate knowledge of the underground conditions in the areas
affected.
This controversy aside, there is little doubt of the reality of the
process of eolian planation and of the activity of deflation as a gen-
eral agent of removal. Its effects have been noted by Davis c on
the South African veld, by Obruchev/ Berg,* and Ivohenko* in
Russian central Asia, by La Touche * in India, by Blackwelder ' in
the Laramie Basin, Wyoming, and by Hundhausen * in southern
France; and Davis l has pointed out its place in the arid-region geo-
oThis conclusion is supported by Hecker — Zs. deut. geol. Gea. 57, Monatsb.:
175-179 (1906).
. & Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 19 8 63-92 (1906); Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 15 : 137-141 (1908);
four. geol. 17: 31-37 (1909); Pop. sci. mon. 74: 19-30 (1909).
«Eng. min. jour. 85:688 (1908).
tfJour. geol. 17:136-163 (1909). See also Tight— Amer. Geol. 36:271-284 (1905),
who points out that the bolson plains are by no means all of the same character or
genesis.
< Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 17 : 428, 435-444 (1906).
/ Verh. Imp. min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 33: 260-263 (1695).
pPedologiel&Ofi: 37-14.
. * Ann. geol. min. ftussie 7, 1: 43-59 (1904); 8, 1: 135-197 (1906).
<Mem. Geol. Surv. India 35: 10 (1902).
/Jour. geol. 17:429-444, esp. p. 443 (1909). See also Knight and Slosson— Wyo.
agr. expt. stat. Bull. 49: 88 (1901).
* Globus 90:4o-48(1906).
I Jour. geol. 13 : 381-407 (1905).
40 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
graphical cycle, and the possibility of the production by its means
of plains of erosion which have no relation to sea level. Such plains
have been discovered in eastern Egypt by Barron* who describes 5
an especially interesting occurrence of gentle slopes which simulate
those due to dip of the strata but which are really of eolian origin.
According to Petrie c at least 8 feet has been removed by deflation
from part of the Nile Delta during the past 2,600 years. Crawford, d
Gilbert, e Woodward, / and Coffey * have described the origin of sur-
face depressions through wind removal, and Forbes * has noted the
lowering of arid region cattle paths by wind erosion. Mention
should also be made of the action of the prevailing wind in modifying
the so-called law of von Baer relating to the asymmetric develop-
ment of river valleys; which action includes not only direct erosion
of the opposing bank, but also eolian deposition behind the wind-
ward bank, sidewise blowing of the waters of the river (with conse-
quent asymmetric erosion), and the action of wind-driven rain.*
Since the wind has no base level of erosion as water has, it may
seem that level plains could not be produced by wind action, but
that the tendency would be to form hollows where the rock was softer
and more easily disintegrated. This tendency is, however, counter-
acted by two others; first, the excess of corrasion to which elevated
portions are exposed and which tends to wear them down to the com-
mon level;' and, second, the action of rain wash (sheetfloods) in
carrying loose material into depressions and tending to fill them up.*
« Topography of Sinai, Western Portion, p. 17, 216 (1907).
ft Topography between Cairo and Suez, p. 19, 115-116 (1907).
cProc. Roy. geog. boc. 11:648 (1889).
<* Trans. New Zealand inst. 12 : 415-416 (1880).
«Jour. geol. 3:47-49 (1895).
/Geol. mag. (4) 4: 363-366 (1897).
fJour. geol. 17:754-755 (1909).
A Ariz. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 38:249-255 (1901).
< On these various actions of the wind see Buff — Ann. Chem. Pharm. Supp. Bd. 4s
223-224 (1865); von Vilovo— Mitt. geog. Ges. Vienna 24:179-187 (1881); Tietze—
Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1881:37-40, Jahrb. ditto 32:132-148 (1882); ZOppritz—
Verh. deut. Geographentags 2: 53 (1882); von Dunikowski— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 86 1
65-66 (1884); Tietze— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 37:825-830 (1887); Rucktaschel—
Peterm. Mitt. 35 : 224-226 (1889); Klinge—Bot. Jahrb. 11 : 301-304 (1889); Koppen—
Met. Zs. 7:34-35, 180-182 (1890); Zimmermann— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 46:493-500
(1894); Penck— Morphologie der Erdoberfl&che, vol. 1, p. 360-362 (1894); Guard—
Gompt. rend. Soc. geog. Paris 1897:273-275; Rutot— Bull. Soc. belg. geol. M6m.
17:95 (1903); Fabre— Geographic 8:291-316 (1903); and Rtthl— Ze. Ges. Erdk.
Berlin 1907: 374-377. The results and interactions of the various factors have
recently been well analyzed by Smolenski— Peterm. Mitt. 55: 101-107 (1909).
I Petrie— Proc. Roy. geog. soc. lit 648 (1889); Brunhee— Mem. Accad. Nuovi
Lincei 21: 137 (1903); Stromer— Centbl. Min. 1903: 4-5; Tolman— Jour. geol. 17 1
150 (1909).
* Passarge— Ze. deut. geol. Ges. 56, Monatsb.: 208 (1904). On sheetflood action,
see McGee— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 8: 87-112 (1897). Tolman (loc. cit. p. 148)
denies the reality of sheet-flood erosion, but the distributive action of such floods is
unquestioned.
THE COMPETENCE OP THE WIND. 41
The result is that only the most resistant rocks are able to withstand
the general tendency of planation, and these rocks form the elevated
mesas and doubtless many of the islandlike mountains of the "Insel-
berge" regions, though some of the latter are perhaps the result of
tectonic movements or remnants of an earlier topography. The
absence of a limiting base level also, as noted by Penck,° permits
the wind to carry its level of planation even below sea level, pro-
vided the waters be excluded by a bordering barrier. In fact this
has possibly happened in the case of Death Valley in California and
the Dead Sea Valley in Asia Minor. Keyes* has, however, pointed
out that there is a natural lower limit of eolian erosion fixed by the
position of the ground-water table, which in turn has usually some
relation to the sea level.*
Deflation has been suggested by Walther d as a possible agent in
the production of the great amphitheaters of the Canyon of the
Colorado. Davis 6 rejects this hypothesis but it is favored by Cross'
and by Tolman.'
The importance of deflation to the student of soils lies in the
other aspect of the phenomena — the deposition of the deflated
material. If large quantities of fine dust are deflated from desert
regions they must be deposited somewhere, and at least a part of the
deposition will be on land surfaces. Dust so deposited may have not
only a geological but an agricultural importance. It will be shown
later that a considerable quantity of dust blown from the Sahara
has been deposited in Europe and that the process is still going on.
Other regions show analogous phenomena.*
THE COMPETENCE ' OF THE WIND. .
The actual size of the particles which can be transported, and
consequently the limiting sizes of lag gravel, drifting sand, etc., in
any individual case depends on the shape and structure (surface-
mass ratio) of the particles and on the velocity of the wind. The
o Amer. jour. sci. (4) 19 : 167 (1905).
*>Bull. Geol. boc. Amer. 19: 90 (1908); Jour. Geol. 17: 659-663 (1909).
cFor a case (in the Holland dune lands) see Du Bois — Tijd. Aardr. Gen. 26: 869-
910 (1909).
* Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 19: 52-65 (1892); translated in Nat. geog. mag. 4: 163-
208 (1892). On the eolian formation of cirques, see also Barron and Hume — Topog-
raphy of the Eastern desert of Egypt, p. 289 (1902).
"Bull. Mus. comp. zool. 38: 187-191 (1901).
/Bull. Geol. boc. Amer. 19: 61-62 (1908).
9 Jour. geol. 17 ; 150 (1909).
* On the eolian interchange of dust between different regions, see Gessert — Naturw,
Wochens. 22 : 705-707 (1907).
'This term is employed by geologists to indicate the size of the particle of solid
matter which can just be carried by a stream — the largest particle which the stream
is "competent" to handle. The extension of the term to eolian transport is obvious.
?
42 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
latter factor is ordinarily the more important, since most soil particles
(except the micas) are approximately spherical. The forces which
tend to place a particle in suspension and keep it there have been
explained as due to the impact of the air against the particle and
the "friction 11 of the air in passing it. The commonly used formula
of Stokes a (which makes no distinction between these quantities)
expresses the relation between velocity and radius of a sphere moving
F
through a fluid as ^=-^ . in which V is the velocity, 7 the vis-
cosity constant of the fluid, r the radius of the sphere, and F the
force which causes the motion. In the case of solid particles sus-
pended by the wind this force is that of gravity, and if its value in
terms of the radius be introduced in the above formula, the latter
becomes V— 9 t* or F=2& 1 , where K is a constant for spherical
particles of uniform specific gravity. This means that the wind
velocity necessary to support a particle will vary as the square of the
radius; or inversely, the radius of the particle which the wind can
support (the radius of competence) will vary as the square root of
the velocity. An increase in wind velocity will, according to this
formula, produce a less than corresponding increase in competence.
The same formula (V==Kr 2 ) may be easily deduced from a consider-
ation of the loss of momentum by impact of moving air particles
against a sphere. Unfortunately this formula does not seem to be
in very good agreement with the rather meager experimental data.
The formula of Stokes has been tested by Zeleny and -McKeehan* and
by Buller c for the case of the fall of plant spores in still air. Both
observers find a discrepancy of about 50 per cent between theory and
observation, but in opposite directions. Zeleny and McKeehan find
that the observed values are less than the calculated, while Buller
finds the reverse. Zeleny and McKeehan, however, in a preliminary
announcement of later work d say that Stokes's formula has been
found to hold for the fall of small spheres of wax, paraffin, and
mercury. Thoulet* has also tested the relations concerned by
measuring the size of approximately spherical quartz grains which
were kept just suspended by an upward air current of known velocity
in a narrow, vertical tube. His data are given in Table II.
a Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. 9, II: [51]-p2] (1850).
* Science (n. b.) 29: 469 (1909); Nature 81; 472 (1909).
c Nature 80 : 186-187 (1909).
d Nature 82: 158(1909).
< His earlier experiments were made in 1884 and are reported in Ann. mines (8)
5: 526-530 (1884). His later, more exact experiments are reported in the Compt.
rend. 146: 1185 (1908). In the table the data of both articles are combined. The
values from the earlier experiments are marked with an asterisk.
THE COMPETENCE 07 THE WIND.
43
Tablb llr-Mtam**menU by ThouUt en the eite of quarto grains kept suspended by a
uniform upward current o/q*r.
Wind
Wind
Wind
Wind
Telocity.
Diameter
velocity.
Diameter
velocity.
Diameter
velocity.
Diameter
of quarts
particles.
Meten
of quarts
parttolee.
Meters
of quarts
parades.
Meters
of quarts
particles.
Meters
per
aoconn
second.
second.
second.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
0.60
0.04
3.00
0.26
6.30
a 53
10.00
0.81
1.00
.08
3.60
.31
6.05
• 56
*10. 80
.38
♦1.51
.14
4.30
.35
7.00
.57
11.00
.80
2.00
.16
4.75
• 39
7.70
.62
12.00
.67
•2.25
.27
5.00
.41
8.00
.65
13.00
1.05
•2.07
.20
5.60
.47
8.10
.65
3.9ft
.24
6.00
.40
9.00
.73
Thoulet himself makes no deductions from these experiments, but
ott {dotting hk results it is evident that the relation is linear and cor-
responds to the formula F*» Kr, where K is a constant for the condi-
tions of the experiment. The discrepancy between this result and the
formula deduced from the Stokes equation is not easy to explain. It
is possible that the relations existing in a narrow tube are not similar
to those for free motion in the open air. The recent experiments of
Orsi ° do not cover wide enough ranges of sizes and velocities to be
useful for a checking of the formulae. They do, however, lead to the
interesting conclusion that the velocity of moving air relative to its
surroundings has a marked effect on the rate of fall (relative to the
air) of particles through it.
Closer to the actual conditions in nature are the observations of
Udden * on the paths of particles of various size allowed to fail freely
when the wind was blowing with a velocity of approximately 8 miles
an hour (3.58 meters a second). It was found that particles aver-
aging 0.75 mm. in diameter fell in a path differing but 10° from the
vertical. Those averaging 0.37 mm. fell at an angle of about 45°,
while those averaging 0.18 mm. followed a path differing but little
from the horizontal. Material 0.08 mm. and less in diameter was
blown clear away.
In all the above discussion the velocities mentioned are, of course,
the velocities of the wind with reference to the particles (or vice
versa), and only the components of these velocities parallel and oppo-
site to the force of gravity are of interest. The velocities of the
wind itself or of the particle as referred to any point in space or to a
point on the surface of the earth are of no direct interest in calcu-
lating the supporting power. However, the upward velocities of the
momentary cross currents (see p. 33) to which support is due may,
in a general way, be assumed proportional to the velocity of transla-
• Arch. Hygiene 68 x 22-53 (1908).
o Jour. geol. fi: 324 (1894).
44 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATEBIAL BY THE WIND.
tion of the wind as referred to the earth's surface, though it is not
impossible that they may increase in greater ratio.
As a practical deduction from his experiments and from many
measurements of blown dust from many different sources Udden*
concludes that the "average largest size of quartz particles that can
be sustained in the air by ordinary strong winds is about 0.1 mm.
in diameter." This conclusion seems to be in good agreement with
all known data. 6 It applies only to particles which are sustained
in the air. The size of the grains which can be rolled and drifted
along the surface depends not alone on the wind velocity and the
nature of the material, but obviously on the topography as well.
Mechanical analyses of dune sands from different localities show the
presence of material varying between fairly wide limits, but this, at
county means little, as the history of the sand is usually not fulfcp:
kno*% nor is it possible to say in how far it owes its position exclu-
sively *o eolian action. Experiments on the wind velocity required to
drift «&nd of definite size under definite conditions have been made
by Soholov* and Olsson-Seffer,* but it is difficult to draw from them
any conclusions of general applicability.
y Mushketov/ and Walther' think that the largest particles which
can be moved (not sustained) by ordinary strong winds are about 2
mm. in diameter. Winds of extraordinary strength may, of course,
move larger fragments. For instance, Rohlfs* and Przhevalskil'
have seen stones as large as the fist blown along by the wind in the
j deserts of Sahara and Gobi, respectively. R. W. Pumpelly'saw
stones 2 inches across blown along by a storm in Turkestan.
It is said * that a wind-borne pebble 2 cm. in diameter was col-
lected from the snow on Ben Nevis after a severe storm.
In all such cases it is necessary to discriminate between material
moved by the wind and material moved by gravity with the assist-
ance of the wind. On sloping ground the wind is able to dislodge
v and start off rock fragments far too large to be affected by it on the
level. In any event the movement of occasional large stones is of
interest only as a curiosity. Of the particles moved to any distance, by
far the larger number must lie well inside of Udden's limit of 0.1 mm.
a Jour. geol. 2: 318-331 (1894). See also his " Mechanical composition of wind
deposits/' where many mechanical analyses are given.
b Cf . Table III, p. 45, below.
c See p. 68, below.
. * Venukoff— Compt. rend. 100: 473 (1885); Sokolov— Die Dttnen, p. 12 (1894).
< Jour. geol. 16: 553-558 (1908).
/Nature 34: 237(1886).
9 Wustenbildung, p. 97.
*Quer durch Afrika, vol. 1, p. 216 (1874); Ausland 45: 1112 (1872).
< Diener— Peterm. Mitth. 35 : 3 (1889).
I Carnegie Institution of Washington Pub. 73: vol. 2, p. 303 (1908).
* Murray and Renard — Nature 29 : 590 (1884) . On pebbles moved by storms in the
Alps see Theobald— Jahrb. Schweizer Alpenklubs 4i 534-535 (1867-68).
THE COMPETBKCB OP THE WIND.
For purposes of reference some measurements of the size of
undoubted wind-borne particles are given in Table III.
.Table III. — Maximum size of particles in various samples of air borne dutte.
Dwt from atorm at Irvlngton. In I , January M. ISM.. . .
Duttfr. i.inn in New South Wtln
Du»l fr r i A' ■'- ,1. .i< i-i mi.
Duatfa ..■ : hi.--. November. : «l
BtrotcaSS hmkl i \biAM,im\\V^.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
Sirocco ii:.t l.illtnai Lealna, Aw:a. ISTfl
Blrocco ■;■: i .,'. K I... . . r> r
Blrocco !■: - : r s : "i n I injury, February, 1SSS.
Blracco i ■.'■ n .1. \Mt
Blrocco -I.,-' <■ i-.-„.ii I- I..T.T., ...)..-. Uafcb, IMD
Blroooo h -. ■■. i ■■■. .'■ I. Mji.h. MO
BlrOCOOlM.; f.Iii-n:,! Zurich. ti»i ■• • .„; U8f.-tl.HCl,.
Sirocco ;.m i ,!;-.i ,.[ Vi.-nriii. A j*:i.s. Marrh. IM1
Blroooo -ii.-' f.-.r-ini! Kul.-ifin. v ,.:.'.». March, 1901....
Sirocco -i-i-.i (ill. ii iii Z. II-. -Mi <, -.11
Blracco (IB * kUen»l EImdcti, aujiti* iiirm. ioai.. .
Sirocco 'in.-.i l.illi'ii i.t Nci-l.T-liir' i ••■• > M ■' i- " ■■!
SlTOCOO i- I h ■!. U Wu.iMsLeln. A.IUUIS Mairb. ItOI
Sirocco -in -i i 1. 1. -ii .ii- 1. In liliacb. Auilrta. Warrb. IsOI...
Sirocco : .' Pirirk, Ainaria blin-h, IW1
Sirocco . IliI.'n.ii i;;;rt. Aus-r.a. March. l»l ....
Slroeco :..i.-n.r I -iiia. Auairta. Marrh, 1901
Sirocco .in.- i l-.il. ii m l-iunir, Hungary. Marcb. 1901 ....
Blroooo I .11-. ill l'.ii-l::|..-.-l, i: .".' ."I. »•' h. .M.I
BITOCC0 .lien at StiHItiirt, i,ni,iiiii Much. [Jul. .
Sirocco In i (illenatCiamar, dennaoy. alar* i>. ISO:. .
BlrocCO i- ii sit Hr.-iMi-u. l.rr: ..:... Ml'. St. no:
a: Uamlmru, ■irnuaoT. Uo
at Koiwhacn.Kwitwrland. ftbronry. IBM..
liuM fniif]] .it
Sirocco. Ii; i I.iii.ti ,u Tr;u-eri. Ehrltatrland / February, ft
' ".iiri..]i,S»m«.a-.rt. Kchruarr. IWu
ir.-le. ilehM.in . Veimiuj. IMS
IpI, Uulliui I. ?*-jruirt, ISOS
... _. ^ausanne. P»l:wi .■ d TtA - .->. imO
Blrocco In -i l.i.l.-ii ul Lp. Amen,!* i> - .-: -m I-: f my. ISUS
Sirocco dual fallen .,n .i.-.;r-i>i,i r -. s • \i mj, 1903
Sirocco 'I'M hi!-:-, ■■: ' u- - irjari. IM
Slrooco-- .:■■:,;-..■■■. I ihtol >-.*■■• \ :f ft I.'- . .ry.lfco...
Blrocco (lusi tallpn on !-l.'.iin.-.lil|i ■• \ .-■.*«'. NDroary, IV
Pint tiora mow, from F»rl«. . .
AUTUOBITIES FOB ABOVI TaBLI.
I. BruMt-Hoo. sealhar rev Sat 1* (1»J) A aarople of dual which fell at Madison, Wla., during tbe
-'• .■-<■■-■ :-■ •..-■•-! Prof J. A.JeSery. It haa been eiamlned by Of. C. C. Fletcher,
- -' ■' -* — *lcle« to be 0.08 mm. Complc"
made by Prof. Milton Whltne
! agr. 19Mi 168. Material w
■e been partly of local origin,
- WMaisei MUlto).
1. !■ Mareriall Salni*AHi ^<(lsu31
' b, St 451 (1886).
d. h.liri-ii|..'ri[ Miin.il K. I'l-i]-;- Al. I. ft la. Berlin 18«Br 308.
7. ! ii 'I -c itaublall.p. do(iwji).
S. M. KWinsi-t SII/u.itMi KiiiiH-ii A .ad. Wla-. Vfenna B3: Kt (188B).
V :;.- --:....|.-r .Lihtl> u,-.l II..;, Ii-.i' il. «Bl 288 (1888).
10. N. A. E. XoriJFNskk.ld Mil /s II: 304 (IBM).
... At-Hi.-ir.il -AIM K Ar.ii-i . ..- neorj. Florence (i) Ml 1« (lsdl).
rj !•■ :.-■. il-iini ,;i- i- . . '.[.■i -i..- i.-«?. dt., pp. eo-7*.
joi-ni l-rij:-, M.-i /:-.-jii: i;<-.|.«m.
3S. I'orel -Hull. Sot-, i-uii'l.wi n i'. n :»! dvH (IMS).
' ~ 4TB (IMS).
to*". Hcrnnann Ann. H] 47SH78(..
.. FrMin a in- 1 1 ii-.l- .: iiiiK-i- ■■•■: unpubUahed) b] r
['.8. N-.iti'.iiiii Miimmi'i. linjiiii.l.-i.i.-.lial'rofeator Uddtnlorkto^ylurDMuD* maaoopyof nl
.« r.,... ru,i _. . „.. ... B | lvl n|
Mi i .".'■; aw*).
46
MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
THE TBAN8POBT CAPACITY OF THE WIND.
The total amount of material which can be carried by the wind is a
matter quite distinct from the question of the size of the particle which
it can sustain. It is evident that water is able to carry particles much
larger than can be supported by moving air, but in its relation to
transport capacity this handicap is more than counterbalanced by the
tremendously greater volume of the atmosphere and by the fre-
quently greater velocities possessed by atmospheric currents. The
carrying capacity of the wind has been experimentally investigated
by Udden, 8 who determined the amount of quartz flour of varying
fineness which was kept suspended by air agitated with a velocity of
about 5 miles per hour. His results are given in Table IV. No great
accuracy is claimed, as the natural conditions are far too complicated
to be susceptible to satisfactory reproduction in the laboratory.
Tablb IV. — Udden* $ experiments on the quantity of quarto flour kept permmmt&y em~
pended by our agitated with a velocity of about 6 mike per hour.
Aratft dtaMtar
QOMltttT
pereuble
0.08
.04
.007
.001 (and below).
vMMfl.
a 030
.047
.US
.063
Udden estimates, from this and other lines of investigation, that
under average conditions the atmosphere can hold per cubic foot about
0.0015 gram of solid matter of the average coarseness of river silt.
Assuming this value and more or less well-known values for velocities
and areas of current, he calculates that the transport capacity of the
winds blowing over the basin of the Mississippi is one thousand
times as large as the transport capacity of the river. This estimate
is based on very conservative data and seems quite worthy of accept-
ance. If anything it is probably too low.
Of course because the transport capacity of the winds is one thou-
sand times that of the river it does not follow that the actual amounts
of material transported are in anything like the same ratio. The
atmosphere is usually loaded only to a very small fraction of its ca-
pacity, and the river, having so much larger a proportion of its capacity
actually utilized, possibly does remove more material from the
Mississippi basin than does the atmosphere. The sediment annually
discharged by the Mississippi is estimated by Dole and Stabler* as
340,500,000 tons, and even if the atmosphere carries only a small frac-
a Jour. geol. 2: 326 (1894).
*U. S. Geol. Surv. Water eupp. pap. 234 1 84 (1909).
THE DISTANCES TO WHICH MATERIAL MAY BE CARRIED. 47
ti<m of what it is able to cany and only a fraction of what is carried
by the river, the amount removed may be still very large. What is
the actual amount of atmospheric transportation out of the Mississippi
basin, or from place to place within it, it is impossible even to estimate
without extensive measurements of deposited dust and of dust in the
air over long periods of time. The difficulty of making such meas-
urements is very great and the value of the results obtained would
probably be entirely incommensurate with the labor expended. Some
idea of the amount of atmospheric transport may be obtained from
the various estimates of deposited dust, of deflation, etc., given in the
following chapters. Some more or less direct measurements of the
material carried by dust-storms are given on pages 80-82. It will
be evident that the amount of material moved by the atmosphere is
probably very large, and that the maximum amount which could be
moved is certainly much larger still.
It may be noted in passing that if these estimates of atmospheric
transport can be established they will, to a considerable extent, vitiate
the calculations of the rate of geologic denudation which are based
on the amount of material carried off by seaward flowing waters.*
THE DISTANCE TO WHICH MATERIAL MAY BE CARRIED.
There is a small fraction of the air-borne dust which is fine enough
to remain more or less permanently in suspension and the distance
to which such material can be carried is limited only by the limits
of the atmosphere. But by far the larger part of the material car-
ried by the wind remains in the lower layers of the atmosphere and
moves in a series of comparatively short leaps in a manner quite
analogous to the process of saltation described by McGee for the
detritus of loaded streams and noted on page 33 above. The lengths
of the leaps made by the individual particles depend on their size
and shape, on the wind velocity, and to a certain extent on the
topography of the country. Very heavy particles, the coarsest of
the drifting sand, are dislodged by some unusually heavy gust and
carried forward a distance dependent largely upon the initial impulse
and the force of gravity, the resistance (or assistance) of the air
being relatively unimportant. Such a particle will describe a tra-
jectory, which is sensibly a parabola. With decrease in the size of
particle, the assisting action of the wind becomes of greater and
greater importance and the path departs more and more from the
parabolic form, tending in the limiting case (and when variations in
direction of the air currents are neglected) to approach the straight
• On the presence and importance of air-borne dust on the ocean bottoms, see Thou-
letr-Compt. rend. 146: 1184-1186,1340-1348(1908); 148: 445-447 (1909) and 150t
947-949 (1910). Cf . Murray— Proc. Roy. geog. soc. (n. e.) 12 : 466 (1890).
* Free— Science (n. s.) 29 x 423-424 (1909).
48 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND*
line parallel to the direction of the wind, which represents the path
described by the truly suspended particle. In all actual cases the
path described is affected by so many accidental variations that it
loses all resemblance to any regular curve, but the motion is always
saltatory in its general character and all eolian transportation (ex-
cluding that of truly suspended material) is by a series of leaps.
This manner of progression can be very easily and very beautifully
observed in the motion of drifting sand under a moderate wind.
With such sand the leaps are very short — a few inches or a few
feet — but the finer material intermediate between that in saltation
and that in true suspension may make leaps of much greater length,
perhaps even of miles. The particular sizes (or surface-mass ratios)
which such material includes will vary with the velocity of the wind.
A heavy storm may carry in what is practically permanent suspension
matter which, by ordinary winds, would be moved only in saltation.
There is really no intrinsic difference between saltation and suspen-
sion. Particles carried in suspension are simply saltatory particles
whose leaps are disproportionately (in the limiting case infinitely)
long. 6 This intermittent character of the movement of soil particles
by the wind applies, of course, only to individual particles and not
to the mass, and does not mean that the air intermittently loses its
load. When one particle is dropped another is picked up, and the
total load may remain practically constant, though the individual
particles are changing. Neither does it mean than an individual
particle can not travel far if sufficient time be allowed. Unless in
some way permanently attached to the surface some of the particles
dropped at any spot will be again picked up and started on another
leap. The total distance of transport effected by even one storm
may be very considerable for some few of the particles. Others will
be left from place to place along the way and new ones picked up in
their stead. It is this constant interchange which takes place between
the atmospheric load and the soil which gives to the process of wind
translocation its importance in mixing soils and maintaining their
heterogeneity.
The arid region dust storms, described on page 77 and following,
frequently carry material so fine that much of it remains in suspen-
sion throughout the whole course of the storm, and the distances
covered by such material are consequently very great, though well-
a See the recent experiments of Olsson-Seffer on drifting coastal sands, Jour. Geol.
16: 557-658 (1908).
b Saltatory transport is here discussed as though the wind were constant in direc-
tion and velocity. Of course, in nature this practically never occurs; and owing to
eddies and velocity changes in the wind a particle of medium size may be successively
in "suspension" and in "saltation" a score of times in the course of a single "leap."
The path actually followed by a wind-borne particle is indescribably complex.
THE DEPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC LOAD. 49
established instances are rare on account of the difficulty of determin-
ing the source of the material. Examination of the dust itself usually
fails to indicate the place of origin, and one must rely on indirect
evidence, such as the existence of a probable source in the direction
from which the wind was coming, meteorological data by which the
path of the storm can be traced, etc. A few instances of long-
distance transport by dust storms are given on pages 82-83.
It occasionally happens that dust is raised into the upper air by
violent storms, volcanic eruptions, etc., and the possible velocities
and distances of transfer are then much greater, not alone on account
of the greater vertical fall available, but because of the greater velocity
of the air currents at higher altitudes. Observations on cloud move-
ments a have shown the presence of rapid currents at heights of
from 2 to 10 miles, and the recent observations of Trowbridge b on
meteor trains indicate that velocities of over 100 miles per hour are
not infrequent at greater heights (40 to 65 miles). The existence
of cloud glows and similar optical effects due to dust shows that
some dust is present at high altitudes, though perhaps not at the
highest mentioned, and what dust is there will travel far and fast.
The European dust storm of February, 1903, seems to have traveled
mainly in the higher strata and with a velocity of about 50 miles
an hour. A part of the dust of the storm of March, 1901, also got
into the higher strata (above the zone of rain formation) and was
not precipitated with the rain of March 12. Three days later it
had sunk low enough to be caught by the rain of the 15th and carried
down therewith.* It is probable, however, that the total transport
affected by these higher currents is very slight. Most eolian trans-
portation is by saltation in the air close to the surface.
THE DEPOSITION OF ATMOSPHEBIO LOAD.
Material carried either in suspension or in saltation is deposited
primarily by decrease of wind velocity. Owing, however, to the
variable character of the wind, and indeed to the very nature of the
process of saltation, material is always being deposited and other
material being picked up. The problems of the accumulation of
blown material are therefore not so much problems of deposition as
problems of the retention of the material which is deposited.* As,
• See, e. g., Polis— Met. Zb. 19: 441-453 (1902).
&Mon. weath. rev. 35: 390-397 (1907).
c Herrmann— Annalen Hydrog. 31: 481 (1903).
* Krebs— Annalen Hydrog. 31: 174 (1903).
<The action of rain in washing dust out of the air and thus causing its deposition
is not of great geological importance. In so far as it causes the deposition of truly
suspended atmospheric dust it will be later discussed under that head.
53952°— Bull. 68—11 4
50 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
however, the removal of material depends upon the violence of the
wind as much as does its transport, the problems of retention come
back pretty closely to wind velocity after all. What decreases the
wind velocity will favor retention as well as deposition. Thus the
action of vegetation in causing the deposition (or rather the accumu-
lation) of blown material depends primarily upon the decrease of
wind velocity produced by the vegetal obstruction, but this decrease
of velocity both causes the wind to deposit its suspended matter and
prevents its picking up new.
On account of their retentive action plants are particularly efficient
in collecting drifting sand and other material which moves near the
surface in a succession of comparatively short leaps. A clump of
plants in an area of moderate sand drift will thus collect blown mate-
rial around it, forming a little mound. As the sand heap grows the
plants grow also and continue their accumulating action until a heap
several feet high may be produced. These plant-formed mounds,
both of sand and of fine dust, occur very commonly in the arid and
8emiarid regions ° and have been noticed by many travelers. 6
It is obvious that similar mounds may be produced by the removal
of soil from the intervening spaces instead of by accumulation at the
locus of the plant. 6 In fact, in the cases of many of these desert
mounds it is impossible to decide whether they have been formed by
accumulation or by retention coupled with lowering of the general
surface. Probably both agencies are often at work at once. Because
of the great mobility of the surface material of deserts the plant-
a Their universality in such regions is large due to the tendency of desert plants to
grow in clumps or colonies with bare spaces between. These isolated colonies easily
catch the blown dust and sand.
& See, e. g., Ehrenberg— Abh. K. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1827: 73-88; Well-
sted— Travels in Arabia, vol. 1, p. 87; vol. 2, p. 38 (1838); Kinahan— Nature 16:
7 (1877); Gabb— ibid., pp. 183-184; Senft^Gsea 15: 83-92 (1879); Tarr— Amer. nat.
24: 458 (1890); Means and Gardner—Field Operations, Bur. of Soils, 1899: 62;
Walther— Wttstenbildung, pp. 122-124, 128, etc. (1900); Russell— U. S. Geol. surv.
Bull. 217: 33 (1903); MacDougal— Bot. gaz. 38: 52 (1904), Bull. Amer. geog. soc.
39: 709-710 (1907), North American deserts, p. 37, 39 (1908); Hedin— Scientific
results, vol. 1, p. 332 (1904); vol. 2, p. 15 (1905); Grund— Si tzungsb. K. Akad. Wiss.
Vienna Abt. I, 115: 550 (1906); Hume— Topography Southeastern Sinai, p. 65
(1906); Hill— Eng. min. jour. 83: 663 (1907); Hovey— Bull. Amer. mus. nat. hist.
23: 405 (1907); S. H. Ball— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 308: plate II (1907); Beadnell—
An Egyptian oasis, p. 78-80, 210 (1909); Stein— Sand buried ruins of Khotan, pp.
275, 429, 435 et al. (1903), Geog. jour. 34: 24 (1909); Spalding— Distribution of
Desert Plants, p. 11 (1909). Cf. also the observation of Przhevalskil of the raising
of the banks of central Asian rivers by dust deposited in the vegetation there growing
(From Kulja to Lob Nor, p. 57 [1879]).
cFor examples see MacDougal and Grund (loci citati in last note), Baraban —
1 traverslaTunisie, p. 76 (1887); Ivohenko— Ann. geol. min. Rubs. 7, 1: 50, 53 (1904);
Huntington— Pulse of Asia, p. 180-181 (1907); and Waring— U. S. Geol. surv. Water
supp. pap. 220: 11, plate III, b (1908).
THE DEPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC LOAD. 51
protected spots tend to grow quite rapidly at the expense of the
interspaces which lack this advantage, and the producers of this
growth are seldom exclusively eolian. The plants act toward the
water-borne detritus much as they act toward that moved by the
wind.
Forms of protection other than vegetal will also serve to prevent
removal, though they have usually no tendency toward localizing
accumulation. The writer has frequently seen mounds and ridges
capped with desert pavements, and it seems not improbable that these
elevations owe their origin to the pavement which protects them.
The surrounding depressions, having lacked this protection, or the
material from which to produce it, have been more deeply scoured.
It is certain that a hard surface layer will serve to localize wind scour
and produce gullies and local depressions where the protecting layer
is absent or breached. The clay "eolian mesas" and wind-scoured
gullies of the desert of Lop-Nor 6 have probably been formed in some-
what this way, c though the past distribution of vegetation may have
been not without influence. d Forms superficially similar to these,
but on a smaller scale and composed of hardened dime sand, are not
uncommon in the wind-scoured parts of dune areas. The best exam-
ples which the writer has examined are in the gypsum dunes of the
Alamogordo desert/ In this area the taller sand blocks are usually
capped by plants, which have probably had much to do with their
formation.
In the humid regions the action of vegetation is not so noticeable,
because the plants do not grow in clumps and no raised mounds are
produced, but the action is none the less present and the blown dust
entangled in the Vegetation goes to raise the general soil surface over
areas in which deposition is in progress. In the general movement
of detritus from place to place land covered with vegetation is better
able to retain material which falls on it, and it therefore happens that
vegetation-covered areas, large or small, tend to gain at the expense
of those not so covered. This growth of soil, because of the retention
a For examples see Rolland — Geologie Sahara algenen, p. 215-217 (1890); Russell —
U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 199: 144 (1902); and authorities cited in the next note below.
A similar case of eolian undercutting in soft tuffs capped by a harder layer is cited
by Hovey — Bull. Amer. mus. nat. hist. 23: 429-430, and plate xxlx (1907).
ft Hedin— Scientific results, vol. 2, p. 67, 223-253, 488-489, 494-500(1905); Hunting-
ton— Pulse of Asia, p. 253-254, 262 (1907); Stein— Ancient Khotan, pp. 107-108, 112,
242, 315, 327 (1907), Geog. jour. 34: 26 (1909); R. W. Pumpelly— Carnegie inst. of
Wash. Pub. 73, vol. 2, pp. 283-284 (1908). Similar forms in the Oasis of Kharga
(Egypt) are mentioned by Beadnell — An Egyptian oasis, p. Ill (1909).
c Hedin — Loc. cit., p. 238.
<* Hedin— Loc. cit., pp. 248, 365.
« Noted by MacDougal — Botanical features of North American deserts, p. 13, and
plate 2 (1908).
52 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
of blown dust by the vegetal covering, has been observed by Shimek a
and Shaler, 6 and especially by Huntington.* According to the last
writer the areas over which eolian loess is now being deposited in
central Asia are determined by the presence or absence of vegetation,
which in turn is determined by the general climatic conditions.* The
periods of greater rainfall which are postulated by his hypothesis of
alternating climatic change, are also periods of greater vegetation,
and therefore periods of loess accumulation; and with change of
climate, either toward or away from greater aridity, the vegetation
will increase or disappear, will retreat or advance, and the areas of
eolian accumulation or removal will vary accordingly. Another
interesting illustration is the observation of Beadnell* that the
irrigated and cultivated spots in the Oasis of Kharga in the Lybian
Desert have been raised many feet within historic times gimply by
the accretions of wind-blown dust and sand which they are con-
stantly receiving and which are retained by their vegetal covering.
Of course, decrease of wind velocity and consequent deposition
may occur in ways with which vegetation or other surface obstacles
have nothing to do; ways which are much more general and affect
much larger areas. The more or less constant winds, which are
caused by climatic and general meteorological conditions or by the
larger features of the topography, often tend to lose their velocity
over about the same area, and if these winds be dust-laden this area
will become one of eolian deposition. Of course there must be some-
where complementary areas of eolian removal from which the winds
have obtained their load. The accumulation of eolian material over
wide areas, and even in some cases over small ones, is dependent in
the most complex way upon climatic factors, not alone as they
influence the path and velocity pf the winds, but even more as they
control the presence or absence of vegetation and its nature and
permanence. These matters will find ample illustration in the dis-
cussion of the loess and its probable origin, which will be found on
pages 124 to 141.
Accumulation in special locations may also be caused by the direct
action of a moist surface in retaining particles which accidentally
drop thereon. Thus the initial impulse to dune formation is occasion-
ally furnished by a moist spot, which causes the accumulation of a
aProc. Iowa acad. sci. 4: 68-72 (1897); 10: 45-48 (1903); 15: 57-64 (1908).
b Bull. Geol. boc. Amer. 10: 245-252 (1899).
cBull. Geol. soc. Amer. 18: 359-360 (1907), and Pulse of Asia, pp. 135, 148 (1907),
See also Richthofen — Fuhrer ftir Forachungsreisende, pp. 477-483 (1886), and Hedin—
Scientific results, vol. 1, p. 291-293 (1904).
* See also R. W. Pumpelly — Carnegie inst. of Wash. Pub. 73, vol. 2, pp. 246 et al.
(1908).
• An Egyptian oasis, pp. 78-80, 210 (1909).
DRIFTING SAND AND SAND DUNES. 53
heap of sand, and it has been suggested by Fischer b that on the
coast of Morocco moisture (especially dew) assists the growth of soil
by entrapping and retaining fallen eolian dust. It is necessary of
course that the surface be possessed of a sufficient supply of moisture
to resist the drying action of the wind, and it is apparent from the
discussion on page 30 that most land areas are not thus equipped.
Any surface will meet the conditions just after a rain, but very few are
wet enough to do so at all times. The extreme case is that in which dust
falls on the surface of the water itself. Such material goes to join the
load of the stream or is deposited on the bottom of the lake or sea.
Another interesting special case is the tendency of the salts of
certain alkali soils to keep them moist and thus cause the accumula-
tion of dust. It is possible that some few deposits of loess have been
formed in this way. d
DRIFTING* SAND AND SAND DUNES.
THE NATURE OF SAND DRIFT.
The ordinary drifting sand moves in saltation by comparatively
short leaps, never rising far above the surface. 6 That of the desert
can not be felt by a person mounted on a camel/ By reason of this
tendency to hug the surface, isolated rocks exposed to drift-sand
corrasion are worn away much more rapidly below than above, assum-
ing various mushroomlike forms,* and trees, telegraph poles, etc., are
girdled near the ground.*
o Gamier— Compt. rend. Soc. geog. Paris 1885: 498-499; Courbis— ibid. 1890:
114-119, 266-261; Cornish— Geog. jour. 15: 28-30 (1900); MacDougal— Botanical
features of North American deserts, p. 39 (1908); Ivchenko — Ann. geol. min. Russie
10, 1: 20-21, 25-26 (1908).
*Peterm. Mitth. Erganzungs hft. 133: 122-123 (1900), Mitth. geog. Ges. Hamburg
18: 1155(1902).
«See Hedin— Scientific results, vol. 2, p. 132-133 (1905).
d Holland— Compt. rend. 114: 1298-1301 (1892); Walther— Wustenbildung, p. 112
(1900).
« See Bre*mon tier — Ann. ponts chauss. 5: 148 (1833); Blake — Pacific Railway repts.
vol. 5, p. 242 (1856); Travers— Trans. New Zealand inst. 2: 248 (1869); Wesseley—
Flugsand, p. 51 (1873); Beringer— Documents Mission Flatters, p. 92 (1884); Sokolov —
Die Dunen, pp. 14-15 (1894); Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 516 (1899); Horna-
day — Campfires on desert and lava, p. 187 (1908); etc., and especially the experiments
of OlBson-Seffer— Jour. geol. 16: 553-558 (1908). On the similar drift of snow in the
arctic see Andree— Arch. sci. phys. nat. Geneva (3) 15: 522-533 (1886); Kusnezov—
Meteor. Svornik 1000: 477-481; Ferrar— National Antarctic Exped. 1901-4, Nat.
Hist. 1: 84 (1907); and Tschirwinsky— Zs. Gletscherk. 2: 104-112 (1907).
/ Foureau — Documents scientifiques Mission saharienne, vol. 1, p. 215 (1904).
9 See e. g., Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 445 (1899); Jentzsch— Gerhardt's
Handbuch des Dunenbaues, p. 57 (1900); Cornish— Geog. jour. 15: 21 (1900); R. T.
Hill— Eng. min. jour. 85: 686, and photo, on page 685 (1908); Tolman— Jour. geol.
17: 150(1909).
*Udden— Pop. sci. mon. 49: 663 (1896); MacDougal— Botanical features of North
American deserts, p. 38 (1908). Cf. also p. 27 above. Dr. W J McGee tells me that
the Casa Grande Ruins in Arizona have been reduced to their present dilapidated
state largely by the sapping of the walls by drift sand.
54 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
The phenomena of sand drift are most clearly and strikingly
exhibited on nearly level plains of some extent, covered with loose
sand ; and, in the main, free from vegetational or other obstructions.
Such plains, of glacial, fluvial, marine, or eolian origin, are not
uncommon in nature and form the sand wastes of the various con-
tinents, as well as the sandy portions of the true deserts. 6 Borders
of drifting sand are also found on many coasts where the sand
supplied by the sea is carried inland by on-shore winds. 6 These natu-
« On these sand wastes see: Gutbier — Sitzungsb. Isis Dresden 1864:42-54;
Wesseley — Der europaischen Flugsand und seine Kultur, 1873; Mangin — Le desert et
le monde sauvage, 1866; and works cited in the bibliography under Deminskft,
Friedberg, Garkem, Gerasimov, Gottlieb, Graebner, Griselini, Gutbier, Hult, Ispo-
latov, Lakin, Lehmann, Lori6, McMaster, Morlot, 0. T., W. Peters, Pravitelstven.
Vl&tnik, Praxa, Raznochintsev, S. S., Sab ban, Solon, Stache, Suomalainen, Themak,
Timoshchenkov, Uspenskil, V. M., Vorreith, Wahnschaffe, and H. Wolf.
b The literature of deserts is too extensive to permit of summary. A few of the
more important works are referred to on the following pages and cited in the bibli-
ography. On desert geology in general see Walther — Das Geeetz der Wustenbildung,
1900; Wohlfarth— Ziir Morphologic der Wusten, 1902; Wiszwianski— Die Faktoren
der WQstenbildung, 1906; Penck— Geog. Zs. 15: 545-558 (1909).
c On coastal sands and dunes see Forchhammer — Neues Jahrb. Min. 1841: 1-38,
Andresen— Om Klitformationen, 1861; Keller— Zs. Bauwesen 31: 189-210, 301-318,
411-422 (1881); 32: 19-35, 162-179 (1882); Wesseley— Flugsand, p. 25-31 (1873);
Jentzsch, in Gerhardt'e Handbuch dee deutschen Dunenbaues, p. 41-124 (1900);
Reinke — Wise. Meeres-unters. Kiel (n. f.) 8, Erganzungsh. (1903); Ibid. n. f. 10,
Erganzungsh. (1909). For other works and descriptions of special localities (not
North American) see the works cited in the bibliography under About, Ailio,
Albert, Alker, Andresen-Rabenholz, Arctowski, B., Auerbach, Bagneris, F. Bailey,
Baschin (Dfinenstudien), Baude, Baudiesin, Bayberger, Berenberg, Berendt, Berg-
haus, Bert, Bezzenberger, Blesson, Blijdenstein and Brants, Boase, Borggreve, von
dem Borne, Bortier, Braine, Branner (Amer. jour. sci. (4) 16: 307 [1903]), Br6-
montier, J. C. Brown, Brliel, Buffault, Camerer, Chambrelent, Cockayne, Coincy;
F. W. Conrad, Czerny (p. 27), Dahms, Dawkins, Deecke, De la Beche, Delamarre,
Delfortrie, C. W. Doreey (Bull. Phil. Bur. agr. 3: 22 [1903]), Doss, Duffart,
Duregne, Edmonds, Elie de Beaumont (Lecons, vol. 1, pp. 195-220), Engell, Engler,
Fabre, Faye, Feilberg, Feldt, Fisher, Foote, Foss, Frombling, Archibald Geikie
(Textbook, pp. 441-443), Gillet-Laumont, Girardin, Goursand, Grand jean, Hagen,
T. S. Hall, Hallier, Harder, Harshberger, Hartig, Hauser, Hautreux, Hesselman,
Heywood, Hodgkin, Hooker and Ball (pp. 81, 324r-325), Hiibbe, Hull, Jachmann,
Jentzsch, Keilhack, Kennard and Warren, Kinahan, Wm. King and Foote, Klinge,
Klinsmann, Knuth, G. C. A. Krause, Labat, de Lambrardie, Laval, Laveleye,
Lehmann, Leiviska, Le Mang, Linck, Lindner, Lorentzen, Lorenzen, Lori6, Maack,
McNaughton, Magalhaes-Mesquita, Marshall, Massart, Maw, Meier, Meinicke, Meyn,
Mickwitz, Monckton, Mortensen, M tiller, E. Naumann, Nilsson, Parran, Pechuel-
Loesche, E. Philippi, Pigeon, Poboguin, Poisson, Poore, Pravitelstven. Viestnik, Prest-
wich, Razeburg, Reclus, C. Reid, Reinke, Riefkohl, Rosberg, Saint-Jours, Samanoe,
Schumann, Sokolov, Sprenger, Stapff, Staring, Steenstrup, Suomalainen, Tassin,
Thesleff, Thomson, Toepfer, Topley, Ussher, Vasselot de Regne\ Walther (Einleit-
ung, p. 839-844), Webber, Weigelt, Wellsted (vol. 2, p. 110), Wery, Wessel, Weule,
Willkomm, Wilmer, Alec Wilson, T. C. Winkler, Wutzke, Zeiee, Zernecke, and
Zobriet; also the authorities on dune-control cited on pages 74-75 below.
Published notices and descriptions of North American dune localities (coastal and
otherwise) are given in the following list:
Cape Cod: T. Dwight— Travels in New England and New York, vol. 3, p. 91-92
(1822); Rept. Mass. Commissioners of Cape Cod and East Harbors, 1854; Rept. Chief
DRIFTING SAND AND SAND DUNES. 55
ral sand areas of whatever origin are, of course, seldom perfectly
level, or entirely free from obstructions, but it is convenient to analyze
of Engineers U. S. Army, 1876: 181-190, 1879: 273-275, 1886: 574^577, 1903:
87, 783-784; Westgate— U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. plant ihd. Bull. 66, 1904; Allorge—
Ann. geog. 15: 443-448 (1906).
New Jersey Coast: Salisbury — The Physical Geography of New Jersey, Final rept.
N. J. Geol. surv. 4: 161-167 (1898); Gifford— Rept. N. J. Geol. surv. 1899, Forests:
233-318; Harshberger— Proc. Acad. nat. sci. Phila. 1900: 623-371.
Cape Uenlopen, Del.: Rothrock— Proc. Acad. nat. sci. Phila. 1889: 134-135.
Cape Henry, Va.: Kearney— Contrib. U. S. nat. herb. 5: 332-337 et al. (1901);
Darton— U. S. Geol. surv. Geol. atlas U. S. folio 80 (Norfolk) (1902).
The Hatteras Banks, N. C: Kerr— Bull. Phil. soc. Wash. 6: 28-30 (1884); Kear-
ney—Contrib. U. S. nat. herb. 5: 261-319 (1900); Cobb— Nat. geog. mag. 17: 310-317
(1906), Jour. Elisha Mitchell sci. boc. 22: 17-19 (1906); J. H. Pratt (and Bond)—
ibid. 24: 125-138(1908).
Pacific coast: Lamb— Forester 3: 94 (1897); Davy— U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. plant
ind. Bull. 12: 65-57 (1902); H. P. Baker— Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 18: 214 (1906);
Humphrey— Plant world 12: 79-82, 152-157 (1909).
Adair Bay (Gulf of California): Sykes, in Hornaday — Camp fires on desert and
lava, p. 231 (1908); MacDougal— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 40: 719 (1908).
Southern end of Lake Michigan: £. J. Hill— Garden and forest 9 : 353-354, 372-373,
382-383, 393-394 (1896); Cowles— Bot. gaz. 27: 95-117, 167-202, 281-308, 361-391
(1899); Coulter— Proc. Ind. acad. sci. 1906: 122-128; de Vries— Album der natuur
1906-7: 129-141, 161-178.
Along the Columbia River: Hitchcock — Nat. geog. mag. 15: 44 (1904); Willey —
Sci. Amer. supp. 65: 113, 120-121 (190b).
Arkansas River Valley (eastern Colorado and western Kansas): Hay — U. S. Geol.
surv. Bull. 57: 44-45 (1890); Ha worth— Univ. Geol. surv. Kans. 2: 276-279 (1897),
U. S. Geol. surv. Water supp. pap. 6: 24-25 (1897); Darton— U. S. Geol. surv.
Prof. pap. 52: 35(1906).
Sheyenne Delta, North Dakota: Willard — Story of the Prairies, 5th ed., p. 94-95
(1908).
Northeastern Iowa: McGee — Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 11, 1: 453 (1891).
Western Iowa: Shimek — Bull. Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 5: 374 (1904).
Central Illinois: McDonald— Plant world 3: 101-103 (1900); Hopkins and Pettit—
111. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 123: 246 (1908).
Minnesota: Upham — Final rept. Geol. and nat. hist. surv. Minn. 2: 418 (1888);
Sardeson— Amer. geol. 20: 392-403 (1897); Elftman— ibid. 21 : 90-109 (1898); C. W.
Hall and Sardeson— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 34&-360 (1899).
Nebraska (sand-hill region): Hayden — Geol. surv. Wyoming, p. 108 (1872); Ryd-
berg— Contrib. U. S. nat. herb. 3: 135-137 (1895); Todd— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull.
158: 64 (1899); Darton— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 21, IV: 549 (1901); U. S.
Geol. surv. Prof. pap. 17 : 13, 15, 23 (1903); Lyon — Bailey's cyclopedia of agriculture,
vol. 1, p. 346 (1907); Stevens— IJ. S. Geol. surv. Water supp. pap. 230: 220(1909).
Eastern Oregon and the Snake River Plains (Idaho): Bradley — Ann. rept. U. S.
Geol. and geog. surv. terr. 6: 211-212(1872); Russell— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 199:
24, 140-141 (1902), Bull. 217: 30 (1903); Waring— U. S. Geol. surv. Water supp. pap.
220: 11 (1908).
The Deserts of the Great Basin: Gilbert— U. S. Geol. surv. Monog. 1: 332 (1890);
Russell— U. S. Geol. surv. Monog. 11: 153-156 (1886); Spurr— U. S. Geol. surv.
Bull. 208: 108 (1903); S. H. Ball— ibid. Bull. 308: 36, 159, 196 (1907).
Alamogordo Desert, New Mexico: MacBride — Science (n. s.) 21: 90-97 (1905);
MacDougal — Botanical features of North American deserts, pp. 11-16 (1908).
Colorado Desert: Gunther— Sitzungsb. K. bay. Akad. Wiss. Munich 1907: 139-
153; MacDougal— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 39: 708 (1907), Botanical features of North
56 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
the phenomena by considering an ideal level plain of uniform and
vegetationless surface on which the sand would drift back and
forth from day to day, a with a tendency to accumulate in the direc-
tion toward which the winds most frequently blew. This drift
would be limited in area by borders of mountains, water, or vegeta-
tion, but in the direction of prevailing winds the stoppage would
be only temporary, for the sand would tend to accumulate just
American deserts, p. 38 (1908); Mendenhall — U. S. Geol. surv. Water supp. pap. 225:
9-10, 26-27 (1909); Tolman— Jour. geog. (1909).
Chihuahua Desert (Mexico): Hesse- Wartegg— Mexico; Land und Leute,p.25(1890);
Hill— Eng. min. jour. 83: 663 (1907); Hovey— Bull. Amer. mus. nat. hist. 23s
404-405 (1907).
Northern Alaska: Schrader— U. 6. Geol. surv. Prof. pap. 20: 95 (1904); Black-
welder— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 27: 459-466 (1909).
Nova Scotia: L. W. Bailey— Proc. Trans. N. S. Inst. sci. 9: 180-194 (1896).
Sable Island (off Nova Scotia): Hahn— Meer und Kttste 1: 105-151 (1901); Saun-
ders— Rep. Canada exp. farms 1901: 62-77, 1902: 55-58.
Porto Rico: Dorsey et al— Field oper. Bur. of Soils 1902: 803, 805.
Dune areas are included in the following sheets of the Topographic Map of the
U. S. (U. S. Geol. surv.): Norfolk, Va.; Sandy Hook, N. J.-N. Y.; Ocean City,
Md.-Del.; Barnegat, N. J.; Long Beach, N. J.; Green Run, Md.-Va.; Toleston, Ind.;
Laldn, Pratt, Lamed, Kinsley, Kingsman, Hutchinson, Great Bend, and Dodge,
Eans.; Springfield, Colo.; Brown's Creek, St. Paul, and Camp Clarke, Nebr.; and
Arroyo Grande and Guadeloupe, Cal.
In the course of the soil surveys conducted by this Bureau dune sands have been
found and reported in the following areas (the references are to the Reports of Field
Operations of the Bureau of Soils): Merrimack County, N. H. (1906: 60-61); Rhode
Island (1904: 63, 65, 67); Long Island, New York (1903: 103, 116); Madison
County, N. Y. (1906: 140); Niagara County, N. Y. (1906: 106, 107, 109); Salem,
N. J. (1901: 136); Dover, Del. (1903: 150); Worcester County, Md. (1903: 174,
182-183); Norfolk, Va. (1903: 237, 246-247); Raleigh-Newbern, N. C. (1900: 200);
Chowan County, N. C. (1906: 230); Lee County, S. C. (1907: 341); Orangeburg,
S. C. (1904: 200, 201); Sumter County, S. C. (1907: 319-320); Charleston, S. C.
(1904: 213, 221); Escambia County, Fla. (1906: 359, 361); Jefferson County, Fla.
(1907: 374); Meigs County, Ohio (1906: 725); Tippecanoe County, Ind. (1905:
797); Marshall County, Ind. (1904: 699); Newton County, Ind. (1905: 761, 767,
768, 769); Winnebago County, 111. (1903: 768, 769); Sangamon County, 111. (1908:
715); Tazewell County, 111. (1902: 470, 471, 473); Biloxi, Miss. (1904: 363);
Dallas County, Ala. (1905: 462-163); Allegan County, Mich. (1901: 98-99); Cass
County, Mich. (1906: 748); Manuring, Mich. (1904: 588-589); Superior, Wis.-Minn.
(1904: 760-762); Crookston, Minn. (1906: 884); Ransom County, N. Dak. (1906:
976, 979, 984); Carrington, N. Dak. (1905: 935, 936); North Platte, Nebr. (1907:
823-824, 830); Sarpy County, Nebr. (1905: 901); Kearney, Nebr. (1904: 868);
Riley County, Kane. (1906: 938); Wichita, Kans. (1902: 635, 636); Garden City,
Eans. (1904: 90&-904); Lower Arkansas Valley, Colo. (1902: 740-741); Waco, Tex.
(1905: 579); Vernon, Tex. (1902: 372); Corpus Christi, Tex. (Advance Sheets 1908i
Corpus Christi Area, 20); Blackfoot, Idaho (1903: 1035); Minidoka, Idaho (1907:
915-916, 917, 919, 921); Salt Lake Valley, Utah (1899: 101); Provo, Utah (1903:
1127,1128-1129); Pecos Valley, N.Mex. (1899: 62-63); Solomonsville, Ariz. (1903:
1059); Salt River Valley, Ariz. (1900: 294); Yuma, Ariz. (1902: 781-782; 1904:
1029); Imperial, Cal. (1901: 592; 1903: 1235); Indio, Cal. (1903: 1253); San
Luis Valley, Cal. (1903: 1104); Ventura County, Cal. (1901:528, 538); Los
Angeles, Cal. (1903: 1269, 1270, 1272); and Santa Ana, Cal. (1900: 390).
a Cf. Cornish— Geog. jour. 15: 29-30 (1900).
BAND DUNES. 57
inside the limiting mountains until it overtopped them; to fill up
bordering water courses; or to slowly encroach on a vegetal border.
If the winds were insufficiently constant this would not take place,
as the accumulations of one storm would be swept away in another
direction by the next. Also, if the mountains were too high, or the
bodies of water too wide or too deep (as, e. g., the sea), or swift
enough to remove the sand as rapidly as delivered, 6 the barrier
might never be surpassed. A vegetal border is just as difficult to
overcome, for vegetation tends to encroach on the sand plain as
much as the plain tends to encroach on the vegetation, and to decide
whether the plants will tie down the sand or the sand overwhelm
the plants there is always a struggle, the outcome of which is largely
dependent on the climatic factors which control the rapidity and
vigor of vegetal growth. Those sand wastes of Central Asia which
were once vegetation-covered and populous seem to have been
invaded by the sand only after the death of the vegetation conse-
quent upon increased aridity.
SAND DUNES.
On areas of loose sand there soon develop by the action of the
eolian agencies themselves, hills or ridges of sand — the "dunes" —
concerning the formation and structure of which much has been said
and written.* Dunes are of many forms, which they owe to many
a For an example of mountains nearly covered by drifting sand, see Hornaday —
Qampfires on desert and lava, pp. 347-348 (1908); cf. also p. 162. If there are gaps
in the mountains the sand may be driven through to form wide fan-shaped plains —
the so-called "sand glaciers." For descriptions of these, see: Stelzner — Geologie
argentinischen Rep., vol. 1, p. 292 (1876); C. W. Thompson—The Atlantic, pp. 289-291
(1878); King, quoted by Pumpelly — Amer. jour. sci. (3) 17: 139, footnote (1879);
Brackebuscb— Peterm. Mitth. 39: 166 (1893); Cornish— Geog. jour. 9: 286 (1897);
Philippi- Ber. deut. Sudpolar Exped., Fahrt von Kiel bis Kapstadt, p. 28 (1902),
andZs.deut.geol.Ges.56: Monatsb.: 65(1904); Hume— Cairo sci. jour. 2: 318(1908).
& For an example (near Gaza in Palestine) of the stoppage of a dune by a small
creek, see note by Hull— Geog. jour. 9: 303 (1897). See also Albert — Actas Soc.
dent. Chile 10: 186 (1900).
« Huntington— Pulse of Asia, especially pp. 188-189 (1907).
<*For general discussions of dunes and dune formation, see Reclus — Bull. Soc. geog.
France (5) 9: 193-221 (1865), The Ocean (English ed.), vol. 1, p. 198-214(1873);
Gunther— Geophysik, vol. 2, p. 616-619 (1885); Bouthillier de Beaumont— Arch. sci.
phys. nat. Geneva (3) 16: 383-386 (1886); Sokolov— Die Dttnen, Bildung, Entwick-
lung und innerer Bau, 1894; Penck— Morph. der Erdoberflache, vol. 2, p. 38-50 (1894);
Cornish— Rept. Brit, assoc. 1896: 857; Geog. jour. 9: 278-309 (1897), and other
papers cited in the bibliography; Bertololy — Krauselungsmarken und Dttnen, 1900;
Bs*chin— Centbl. Bauverwaltung 20: 231-232 (1900); Richthofen— Fuhrer fui
FofBchungsreisende, p. 345-352, 432-442 (1901); Toula— Deut. Bunds. Geog. Stat.
14: 12-19 (1892); Foureau — Documents scientifiques mission saharienne, vol. 1,
p. 213-237 (1904); Walther— Wustenbildung, chap. 11 (1900); Jentzsch— Gerhardt's
Handbuch deut. Dunenbaues, p. 1-124 (1900), Schrift. naturf. Ges. Danzig (n. s.) 11 :
Ixi-lxiii (1904); Cholnoky— Fflldtani Kdzlony 32: 106-143 (1902). Many more
special works are cited elsewhere. Resumed of dune science are given in all the
major text-books of geology. Some unimportant experiments on dune formation are
reported by Courty— La Nature, 31, Ii 211 (1903).
58 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
and variable factors, but the initial impulse to dune formation is, in
most cases, furnished by some relatively fixed obstacle in the plain
of drifting sand. These obstacles may be rocks, buildings, etc., but
they are more likely to be simply clumps of vegetation, which collect
and hold the sand in the manner already described. If the supply
of sand be plentiful, the sand heap soon outgrows and kills the vege-
tation to which it owes its prigin and becomes itself an "obstacle"
about which still more sand will accumulate. An isolated heap of
this sort on an open plain, and free from the disturbing effects of
other dunes, irregular topography, etc., may be considered a typical
or normal dime, though the natural forms are usually far more com-
plex. Under the influence of a wind sensibly constant in direction
and velocity, such a simple dime exhibits the action of principles
which apply to all dunes and which when once discovered can readily
be applied to forms of greater complexity.
The collection of sand into a dune does not mean that it has lost
its proclivity to drift, for, unless fixed, the dune itself moves more
or less rapidly in the direction of the prevailing wind. 6 The sand
grains are drifted up the windward side and fall over the crest and
down the lee side, and the dune is thus quite literally rolled
over and over across the plain. The rate of advance depends on
the amount of moving sand, e the frequency and violence of the
effective winds, and to some extent on the topography of the coun-
try. The smaller dunes always move faster. Wesseley* observed
a On the formation of dunes behind obstacles, see Ehrenberg — Abh. K. Preuas.
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1827: 73-88; Reade— Geol. mag. (2) 2: 587-588 (1875); Borg-
greve— Verh. naturh. Ver. Rheinl. Westf. 32: Cor.-bl.: 69-72 (1875); Schirmer—Le
Sahara, p. 157-158 (1893); Webber— Science (n. s.) 8: 658-659 (1898); Bertololy—
Krauselungsmarken und Dttnen, p. 121-123, 122-130, 134-135 (1900); Walther—
Wttstenbildung, p. 122-124, 128 (1900); Reinke— Sitzungsb. K. preuss. Akad. Wise.
Berlin 1903: 281-295; Foureau — Documents scientifiques mission saharienne, vol
1, p. 222-223 (1903); Williams— Iowa Geol. surv. 16: 462, 490-491 (1905); Gessert «r
Naturw. Wochens. 21 : 525 (1906); Giinther— Sitzungsb. K. Bay. Akad. Wiss. Munich
1907: 144 etseq.; Beadnell — An Egyptian oasis, p. 83 (1909); and the authorities
on the accumulation of sand by vegetation cited in note 6, p. 50. Gholnoky does
not believe that dune formation is initiated by obstacles (Fdldtani Kdzlony 32 : 136
[1902]).
&The "prevailing wind" here is really the wind which prevails during the dry
season, or in general when the sand of the dunes is in condition for movement. This
is, of course, not necessarily the same as the prevailing wind for the whole year.
Wesseley — Flugsand, p. 52 (1873). See also note a on page 60 of this bulletin, and
Gruner— Erl. geol. Spez.-Karte Preuss., Lief. 68, Bl. Wilsnack, p. 17 (1896); Leh-
mann — Jahresber. Geog. Ges. Greifswald 10: 371 (1905); Barron — Topography be-
tween Cairo and Suez, p. 117-118 (1907); J. H. Pratt^-Jour. Elisha Mitchell sci.
soc. 24: 128 (1908); and Bowman— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 41: 150 (1909).
« And to some extent on its properties, especially its moisture content.
* Flugsand, p. 61 (1873).
SAND DUNES. 59
a movement of 7 feet a year on the Hungarian sand plains. Among
the coastal dimes of north Europe velocities of from 3 to 24 feet a
year are cited by A. Geikie; a 7 to 30 feet by Wesseley; 6 1 to 17
feet by Wahnschaffe, c 50 feet by Fisher, d 20 feet by Lehmann,* 18
feet by Berendt/ etc. The Gascon coastal dunes move inland 6 to
7£ feet a year according to Br6montier,f 62 to 75 feet a year accord-
ing to filie de Beaumont,* 14 feet a year according to Bagneris,'
16£ feet a year according to Marsh,' and 33 feet a year according
to Bert.* According to Cobb* a large crescentic dune on the Cur-
rituck Banks, North Carolina, has been moving at an average rate
of 200 feet a year for twenty years. Halligan 411 records 60 feet a
year on the coast of New South Wales. Braine's* careful measure-
ments of the rate of advance of South African coastal dunes gave
values ranging from zero to over 300 feet a year. In several cases
the same dime advanced at different rates at different parts
of the crest. The average advance for the locality is probably
between 50 and 80 feet a year. Olsson-Seffer* observed an advance
of 42 feet in one year by some dunes at Veracruz, Mexico, Albert*
gives the yearly advance of the Chilean dunes as in some places over
a thousand feet, and filie de Beaumont T notes a 'dune on the coast
of Brittany which advanced at the rate of 1,762 feet a year. Accord-
ing to Walther* velocities of 65 feet a day can be attained by dunes
in the Kizyl-kum desert, though the average in this locality is but
20 feet a year.
In the desert between the Jaxartes and the Oxus the dunes move
40 feet northward during the winter, but in the summer the prevailing
« Text-book, vol. 1, p. 443 (1903).
*Loc. cit.
eUrsachen der Oberflachengeetaltung, etc., p. 256-258 (1901).
d Forest Protection (Schlich), p. 625 (1895).
«Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 19: 374 (1884).
/Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 22: 173-180 (1870).
9 Quoted by Czemy— Peterm. Mitth. Erganzungsh. 48: 28 (1876)
*Lecons de geologie pratique, vol. 1, p. 208 (1847).
'Manual de Sylviculture, p. 300 (1878).
J The earth as modified by human action, ed. of 1885, p. 564.
*Les Dunes de Gascogne, p. 7 (1900).
'Jour. Eliaha Mitchell sci. soc. 22: 18 (1906).
»Proc. Linn. soc. New South Wales 31 : 632 (1906).
"Proc. Inst. civ. eng. 150: 389-390 (1902).
o Similar irregularities have been observed by many investigators. Cf. Berendt—
Geologie des Kurischen Haffes, p. 214 (1868); Gottfriedt— Korrespbl. Naturforscherver.
Riga 21 : 113-120 (1875).
P Jour, geol. 16: 563 (1908).
9 Actas Soc. cient. Chile 10: 315 (1900).
* Lecons de geologie pratique, vol 1, p. 202-204 (1847).
* Wttstenbildung, p. 119 (1900).
60 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
winds are in the opposite direction and the dunes move 60 feet south-
ward, the net result being a southward movement of 20 feet a year.
The result of the process of migration is that dunes tend to form
comparatively gentle slopes toward the wind (where the sand is
blown up) and steep ones to leeward, where the sand has fallen over
the crest. In the ideal case £he leeward slope has that angle at
which the sand will just remain at rest — usually about 30°- -though
slightly greater slopes are occasionally found. 6
<» Walther — Wustenbildung, p. 122 (1900). A similar case has been observed in
the Kaveri delta, India, by Wm. King and R. B. Foote — Mem. Geol. but v. India 4:
261 (1865). On the migration of dunes see also Jordan — Die geographische Resultate
der von 6. Rohlfs gefuhrten Expedition in die libysohe Wuate, p. 26 (1875); Bu
Derba-^s. allg. Erdk. n. s. 8: 473 (1860); Lenz— Timbuktu, vol. 2, p. 58 (1880);
Xeilhack— Jahrb. K. Preuss. geol. Landesanst. 1896: 194-198; Bertololy— Krauae-
lungsmarken und Dunen, pp. 161-172 (1900;; Gerhardt — Handbuch deut. Dunenbaues,
pp. 130-170 (1900); Baschin— Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 1903: 423-425; Hedin—
Scientific results, vol. 2, pp. 402-409 (1905); Beadnell— An Egyptian oasi*, p. 203
(1909); Geog. jour. 35: 389-391 (1910); and especially the many data collected by
Ivchenko— Ann. geol. min. Rues. 9, 1: 244-254 (1908).
& The slopes of 60° to 80° reported by Meyen (Reise der Prinzess Louise, vol. 2,
p. 43), Walther (Einlekung in der Geologie als historische Wissenschaft, pp. 792, 794),
Engler (Naturw. Wochens 17 : 278 [1902]), and other writers are almost certainly due to
.errors of observation ; the great probability of which has been pointed out by Cholnoky
(FOldtani Kdzlony 32: 108-109 [1902]). Slopes as steep as these are impossible for
dry sand, and in fact the reports of slopes of 40° and over are much open to suspicion,
though such slopes may be formed in cases where the sand is moist or otherwise
cemented and has been eroded by undercutting. For instances see Baschin — Zs.
Ges. Erdk. Berlin 1903: 428; Hedin— Scientific results, vol. 1, pp. 121-122 (1904).
These can not be considered dune slopes. On the other hand, the maximum of 23°
to 24° given by Chamberlin and Salisbury (Geology, vol. 1, p. 27) is certainly too
low for moving dunes.
The following measurements are found in the literature:
Cape Henry, Virginia: 45°, Kearney — Contrib. U. S. nat. herb. 5: 334 (1901).
Gape Hatteras, North Carolina; 35°, Bond — Jour. Elisha Mitchell sci. soc. 24: 132
(1908).
Clatsop Beach, Oregon; 40°, Diller — Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 17, I: 450
(1896).
Dune Park, Michigan; 30°, Cowles— Bot. gaz. 27: 191 (1899).
Gascon Coast; 29° to 30°, Reclus— La terre, vol. 2: p. 239 (1868); 32° to 40°,
Walther — Einleitung in der Geologie als historische Wissenschaft, p. 845 (1894).
North German Coast; 45°, Berendt — Schrift phys. dkon. Ges. Konigsberg 9: 140
(1868); 41° (maximum), Hagen— Handbuch Wasserbaukunst 3: 149-172 (1863).
Denmark; 30° (average), Forchhammer — Neues Jahrb. Min. 1841: 2, 6.
Island of Sylt; 33°, Baschin— Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 1903: 429.
Hungary; 27° to 32° (average 30°), Weseeley— Flugsand, pp. 27, 28, 54 (1873);
34.5°, Cholnoky— Foldtani Kdzlony 32: 108 (1902). (This is the greatest slope ever
observed by this author.)
Kharga, Egypt; 30° to 33°, Beadnell— An Egyptian oasis, p. 203 ^1909).
Capetown, South Africa; 30° (average), maximum is 32°, Braine— Proc. Inst. civ.
eng. 150: 387(1902).
Turkestan 30° to 40°, Mushketov— Nature 34: 237 (1886).
Tarim Basin; 26° to 39° (many measurements, mostly between 31° and 33°),
Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 2: p. 790 (1899); Peterm. Mitt. Ergftnzungsh. 131:
SAND DTJNBS. 61
The crescentic shape frequently observed in isolated dunes has
been similarly explained. The sand is blown around the ends and
stretches out in long points to leeward, forming a more or less perfect
^
r
^ ^ ^
c *
^
?
Flo. 1.— Group of crescentic dunes in the desert near Bokhara (after Walther).
crescent. Plate I, figure 2, shows a typical dune of this form in the
delta of Carrizo Creek in the Colorado Desert, and figure 1 (after
243-244 (1900); Central Asia and Tibet, vol. 1 : pp. 247, 264, 268, 272 (1903); Scientific
results, vol. 1: p. 270 (1904).
Transcaspian Desert; 30° to40°, Radde— Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 126: 11-12
(1898).
South Australian Coast (?); 36° (maximum), Wilkinson — Jour. & Proc. Roy. soc.
N. S. Wales 16; 94 (1882).
The following measurements have been made by the present writer: Gypsum
dunes of the Alamogordo Desert, 32°, 32.6°, 33°, 34°; crescentic dunes of the Carrioz
62 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATEBIAL BY THE WIND.
Walther) shows a bird's-eye view of a group of such dunes in the
Trans-Caspian Desert. Dunes of this form are found in nature
only where the winds blow mostly in one direction and where the
dunes are not interfered with by the topography of the country or
by each other. In most cases the typical form is variously modified
and obscured. Characteristic examples have, however, been observed
in many localities; as, for instance, in Arabia by Wellsted," Lady
Blunt b and Euting; c in the central and west Asian deserts by
Burnes, d Forsyth/ Middendorff/ MacGregor,* Mushketov,* L6czy,<
Walther/ Kein,* Radde,* Hedin, TO Cholnoky, n Ivchenko, McMahon,*
Davis,* Pompeckj, 1 " and Stein;* and in the Sahara by Nachtigal,* and
— — — -
Creek delta, Colorado Desert, 31.5°, 31.8°, 31.9°, 32°; dune southwest of Fallon, Nev.,
31°; dune area south of Las Animas, Colo. (Arkansas Valley), 32°, 32.3°; littoral dune
at Hermosa, Cal. (near Los Angeles), 31°, 33.5°; coastal dune area southwest of San
Francisco, Cal., 31°, 31.1°, 31.5°, 31.6°.
The angles of rest of various dry pulverulent materials have been investigated
experimentally by Auerbach (Ann. Phys. (4) 5; 170-219 [1901]), who found (p. 180),
for the four kinds of sand examined, values ranging from 34.2° to 35.8°. The angles
of rest of the dry sand dunes which were being undercut by the Tarim River (Eastern
Turkestan) were measured by Hedin as from 32° to 34° (Scientific results, vol. 1 :
p. 167 [1904]). A similar slope on the dune lands southwest of San Francisco, Cal.,
was measured by the present writer as 31.2°.
The lee slope of crescentic dunes of granular snow at Winnipeg, Canada, was
measured by Cornish (Geog. jour. 20: 151 [1902]) as 30°. The angles of rest (and
resultant slopes) of the volcanic lapilli and scoria of the cinder cone at Lassen Peak,
Oregon, vary from 30° to 37° according to the size of the material (Diller — U. S. Geol.
surv. Bull. 79: 11 [1891]).
^Travels in Arabia, vol. 1, p. 411 (1838).
6 A Pilgrimage to Nejd, vol. 2, p. 242-243 (1881).
cVerh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 13: 267 (1886).
d Travels into Bokhara, vol. 3, p. 1-2 (1834).
* Jour. Roy. Geog. soc. 47: 9 (1877).
/Mem. Acad. imp. sci. St. Petersburg 29: 29 (1881).
Wanderings in Baluchistan, p. (1882). These same dunes were later visited
by McMahon, who observed no change of form. (Geog. jour. 9: 309 [1897]).
h Nature 34: 237 (1886), Fflldtani K6zl6ny 17: 269-275 (1887), Deut. Rund. Geog.
Stat. 12: 149(1890).
<Reise Grafen Szechenyi in Ostasien, vol. 1, p. 506 (1893).
/Bull. Soc. imp. nat. Moscow (n. s.) 11 : 437-445 (1897); Peterm. Mitt. 44: 207-208
(1898); Wttstenbildung, p. 123 (1900). These dunes are shown in fig. 1, p. 61.
*Ber. senckenb. naturf. Ges. 1898: cxxiv.
1 Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 126: 11-12 (1898).
m Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 488, 492, vol. 2, p. 789-790 (1899); Peterm. Mitt. Ergan-
zungsh. 131 : 238 (1900); Scientific Results, vol. 1, p. 232 (1904).
»F6ldtani KSzlony 32: 106 (1902).
©Ann. geol. min. Russie 7, I: 51-54, 226-229 (1904); 8: 135-188 (1906).
PGeog. jour. 28: 337 (1906). See al*o note (in discussion) ibid. 9: 306 (1897).
q Carnegie Inst, of Washington Pub. 26: 42, 44, 57 (1905).
rCentbl. Min. 1906: 373-378.
* Ancient Khotan, p. 242 (1907).
* Sahara und Sudan, vol. 2, p. 68 (1881).
BAND DUNES. 63
by Holland; • in India by Oldham; b in the Gascon "landes" by
Grandjean e and Buffault; d near Dresden by Gutbier; e on the west
coast of Africa by Gentz; f in East Africa by Gessert; * in Chile by
Meyen;* in Peru by Poppig,' Tschudi,' Bollaert,* Abercromby,*
Douglass,"* Sears,* and S. I. Bailey; in the Colorado Desert by
Holmes,? MacDougal,? and Tolman; r at Rufus, Oregon (along the
Columbia River) by Westgate f and the writer; on the Hatteras
Banks by Cobb,' etc.*
a Bull. Soc. g£ol. France (3) 9: 508-^51 (1881), 10: 30-47 (1882). See also Hol-
land — Geologie du Sahara algerien, plate 23, fig. 5 (1890).
& Jour. Asiat. soc. Bengal 45, II: 102 (1876); Mem. Geol. surv. India 34: 141-148
(1903).
«Bull. Soc. geog. comm. Bordeaux (2) 19: 184 (1896).
<* fitude sur la cdte et les dunes de M6doc, p. 95 (1897). See also Marsh — The earth
as modified by human action, ed. of 1885, p. 540. On other crescentic coastal dunes
see Jen tzsch— Gerhard t's Dunenbaues, pp. 87-88 (1900); and Baschin — Zs. Gee. Erdk.
Berlin 1903: 422-428.
'Sitzungsb. Isis Dresden 1864: 42-54. On the fossil crescentic dunes of the
German heaths see Solger— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 57, Monatsb.: 179-190 (1905); but
see p. 64, below.
/Deut. Kol. Ztg. 19: 93-94 (1902).
fNaturw. Wochens. 21: 525 (1906).
AReise der Prinzess Louise, vol. 2, p. 43 (1835).
< Reise in Chile, Peru und auf dem Amazonenstrome, vol. 1, pp. 140-142 (1835).
J Peru, Reiseskizzen, vol. 1, p. 336 (1846).
* Jour. Roy. geog. soc. 21 : 99-129 (1851).
'Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 16: 120 (1890).
»E1 Kosmos (Arequipa, Peru) no. 21, Dec. 30, 1892; Appalachia 12: 34-45 (1909).
»Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 27: 262 (1895).
©Ann. Astron. obs. Harv. coll. 39: 287-292 (1906).
V Field Operations, Bureau of Soils 1903: 1235.
9 Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 39: 708 (1907); Botanical features of North American
deserts, p. 38 (1908).
'The Crescentic dunes of the Sal ton Sea. These dunes were visited in June, 1909,
by Dr. B. £. Livingston and the writer, who found conditions practically unchanged
since Tolman's visit.
• Unpublished observations.
'Jour. Elisha Mitchell sci. soc. 22: 17-19 (1906).
« These dunes are often called "barchans." On their general nature and formation
see Cornish — Geog. jour. 9: 278-309 (1897); Oldham — Loc. cit. supra; Mushketov —
Deut. Runds. Geog. Stat. 12: 148(1890); Cholnoky— Foldtani Kozlony 32: 111-123
(1902). Crescentic dunes of drifting snow have been described by Cornish — Geog.
jour. 20: 151 (1902); Cholnoky — loc. cit., p.116; Ferrar — National Antarctic exped.
1901-4, Nat. hist. 1: 84 (1907); von Staff— Zs. deut. dster. Alpenver. 37: 49 (1906),
and Tschirwinsky — Zs. Gletscherk. 2 : 104-112 (1907). Quite analogous crescentic
forms are sometimes formed from loose sand or gravel under flowing water. The
author has seen them on sand-sprinkled street pavements over which a thin sheet
of rain water was flowing. Cornish has observed them in beach shingle (Geog. jour.
11: 639 [1898]). The author observed at Fallon, Nev., in July, 1909, a dune of
crescentic shape almost entirely fixed by vegetation. It is impossible to say
64 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
A common variation of the crescentic form is that produced by
the joining of two or more adjacent dunes as they increase in size.
Several good examples are shown in fig. 1, where at a two dunes,
and at b three dunes have joined. At c are three other dimes which
are likely soon to do so. If only two or three dunes join, the final
result is usually simply a larger dune of the crescentic form," but if
the number of joining dunes is large, there is a tendency to produce
more or less irregular forms of great complexity. Sometimes, either
by the union of isolated dunes or possibly in other ways, there will
be formed long and passably straight ridges transverse to the ruling
wind direction and frequently in series parallel to each other, like
huge ripple systems. Such transverse ridges are similar to isolated
dunes in their proclivity to migration, in their slope relations, etc.
whether this is a barchan which has been grown over with plants or whether the
crescentic form is accidental.
Mention should perhaps be made of the unusual crescentic dunes whose points face
the wind instead of stretching to leeward. These occur on certain coasts and are
generally believed to be formed by the lag of the flanks of an ordinary rounded dune
as it moves forward. The sand at the edges of the dune being thinner, is believed
to be more easily fixed by vegetation or held by ground water rising from below.
The central higher part is therefore the more free to move, and gradually leaves the
flanks behind. This hypothesis explains the occurrence of such dunes mainly on
coasts, for it is exactly here that strong winds are combined with a relatively strong
tendency toward fixation of the sand. On these dunes see Sokolov — Die Dun en,
pp. 07 etseq. (1894); Bertololy — Krauselungsmarken und Dttnen, pp. 144-145(1900);
Jentzsch— Gerhardt's Dttnenbaues, p. 87(1900); Cholnoky— Fflldtani K6zl6ny32i
123-125 (1902); Lehmann— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 57, Monatsb.: 264-265 (1905),
Jahresb. Geog. Ges. Greifswald 10 : 351-379 (1905). Dr. W J McGee tells me that he
has observed many instances among the dunes of western Nebraska. I have myself
observed one on the Pacific coast near San Francisco. The fossil crescentic dunes of
Galicia and of north Germany may be of this type. See Friedberg — Atlas geol.
Galicyi 16: 33-37 (1903); Solger— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 57, Monatsb.: 184-185
(1905), Verh. deut. Geographentags (Danzig) 15: 159-172 (1905), Monatsb. deut. geol.
Ges. 1908:5^-59; Romer— Kosmos (Lw6w) 31: 10-12, 334-362 (1906); Verh. geol.
Reichsanst. 1907: 48-55; Jentzsch— Monatsb. deut. geol. Ges. 1908: 120-123.
Solger' a last article (loc. cit.) points out important differences between these reversed
crescentic dunes (or " parabolic dunes") and the typical barchans.
It is, of course, possible that some observations of crescentic dunes whose points
face the wind may be in error, due to the dunes having been observed during a wind
contrary in direction to that by which they had been formed. For a case of this sort
(Meyen and Poppig on the South American dunes) see Bertololy, loc. cit., p. 153.
Barchans are, however, very sensitive to changes in wind direction and are rapidly
modified in form by a reversed wind. See Hedin — Geog. jour. 8: 361 (1896); Wal-
ther— Bull. Soc. imp. nat. Moscow n.s. 11 : 443-445 (1897); Baschin — Zs. Ges. Erdk.
Berlin 1903: 427-428 (1903); Hedin— Scientific resulte, vol. 1, p. 277-278 (1904);
Beadnell— -An Egyptian oasis, p. 205 (1909).
« A dune in which this process is almost complete is shown at d in fig. 1. On the
union of crescentic dunes see also Hedin — Scientific results, vol. 1, pp. 351-354
(1904).
SAND DUNES. 65
They are frequently to be found in deserts • and are responsible for
the well-known wave-like surface of these areas. Coastal dunes are
also usually linear and transverse to the prevailing wind, but are
not so likely to be regular in form as are the ridges of the desert,
being largely determined by the shape of the coast line, the amount
of sand supplied at various points, etc.
In addition to these forms, all of which have their greatest exten-
sion in a direction transverse to the wind, there are also dunes
which stretch out parallel thereto. The precise nature of the
processes which give rise to these longitudinal dimes is very uncer-
tain, but such forms seem to occur most readily where the supply
of sand is small relative to the strength of the wind. 6 Where
more sand is available (or the wind less regnant) the dunes are
transverse.
The brief discussion of dunes above given is based on the theories
of dune formation which find general acceptance at present. It is
possible, however, that too little stress has been laid upon the effect
« For instance in India see Strahan — Gen. Kept. Surv. India dept. 1882-83,
App.: 3-4. (Cf. also Note 6 below). In Central Asia: Hedin — Through Asia, vol. 1,
p. 499, vol. 2, pp. 777, 791 (1899), Petenn. Mitth. Erganzungsh. 131: 245 (1900);
P. M. Sykee— Geog. jour. 19: 161 (1902). In Arabia: Wellsted— Travels in Arabia,
vol. 1, pp. 80-87 (1838); Palgrave— Narrative of journey through Arabia, p. 62 (1865);
Phillips— Quart, jour. Geol.soc. 38: 110 (1882); Zwemer— Geog. jour. 19: 61 (1902).
In the Sahara: Tristram— The great Sahara, pp. 300-302 (1860); Choisy— Documents
Mission Algerie, p. 323 (1890); Holland— Bull. Soc. geol. France (3) 10: 30 (1882).
In Australia: Sturt— Central Australia, vol. 1, pp. 183-186, 233, 251, 336, 338-339,
371, 379, 380, 405 (1848), vol. 2, pp. 26, 33-36, 42, 45 (1849); Carnegie— Spinif ex and
sand, pp. 178, 249-252, 377 (1898). It appears, however, that these often-cited Aus-
tralian ridges are composed not really of sand, but of ' ' loam " covered with sand. See
Sturt, loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 379, and Gregory — Dead heart of Australia, pp. 65, 109
(1906). Their true nature and origin remain in doubt. Transverse ridges of drifted
snow occur in the arctic regions. See, e. g., Wrangell — Narrative, p. 244 (1840).
& On the nature and formation of longitudinal dunes see Blanford— Jour. Asiat. soc.
Bengal 45, II: 92-93, 97-103 (1876); Medlicott and Blanford— Geology of India, 2d ed.
(Oldham), p. 455 etseq. (1893); Cornish— Geog. jour. 9 : 292-293 (1897), 20 : 153,160
(1902); Blake— Quart, jour. Geol.soc. 53: 228-229(1897); Beadnell— Geol. jour. 35 :
380 et al. (1910). It is possible the longitudinal dunes may be formed by the erosion
of the troughs rather than by accumulation (see Cholnoky — Foldtani K5zl6ny 32 : 141
[1902]). This is probably true of the longitudinal snow dunes of arctic and antarctic
latitudes (Philippi— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 56, Monatsb. 66 [1904].) The first stage of the
dune of accumulation is, however, longitudinal, and consists simply of a long tongue
of sand stretched out behind the inducing obstacle. See Bertololy — Krauselungs-
marken und Dunen, pp. 12&-130 (1900), and cf . Reade— Geol. mag. (2) 2 : 587-588
(1875); and Gunther— Sitzungsb. K. Bay. Akad. Wiss. Munich 1907: 139-153.
«The best discussions are the excellent articles of Cornish (Geog. jour. 9 : 278-309
[1897]), and of Cholnoky (Fdldtani Kdzlony 32 : 106-143 [1902]). See also the works
cited on page 57 above and elsewhere in this chapter.
53952°— Bull. 68—11 5
66 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATEBUL BY THE WIND.
of the eddy behind the dune in determining or modifying its structure.
The nature of the eddy thus produced is indicated by the diagram,
figure 2 (after Darwin) , where the directions of the moving air are
indicated by the stream lines and arrows. This back eddy not only
blows sand up the lee slope, thus maintaining or even increasing its
steepness, but it is also active in excavating and keeping clear the
trenches between the dunes
of a dune complex. 6 The
action becomes apparent to
the eye when the crest of a
Fig. 2— Ideal diagrams of air currents showing tendency of dune f orms the sky line, for
^to) WWMdnpri ^ to ^ todlWtlOI,fl<a,ter there is then ****> risin g
from the crest, a thin stream
of "dune smoke," c which is undoubtedly simply sand blown upward
by the current produced at the meeting point of the eddy and the
main wind. It is probable that this eddy, perhaps in modified form,
is responsible for the crater-shaped hollows occasionally found at
the tops of large dunes,* and perhaps for other anomalies of dune
structure.
<* See, however, Cornish — Geog. jour. 15 : 7, 22, 23 (1900); Bertololy — Krauselungs-
marken und Dttnen, pp. 137-139 (1900); Hedin— Scientific results, vol. 1, pp. 246-250
(1904); and Lomas— Trans. Liverpool geol. boc. 10; 187 (1905-6).
& The action of heavy winds in excavating these troughs has been noticed among the
Gascon dunes by Grandjean — Bull. Soc. ge*og. comm. Bordeaux (2) 19 : 183-184 (1896).
Similarly Foureau (Documents scientifiques mission saharienne, vol. 1, p. 236-237
[1904]) has noticed that the troughs between the Sahara dunes do not tend to fill up,
but that the materials of the (presumably) original surface can still be seen at their
bottoms. Hedin has observed similar conditions in some of the troughs between dunes
in the Takla-makan desert (Through Asia, vol. 1, pp. 457, 472 [1899]; Peterm. Mitth.
Erganzungsh. 131 1 243, 244 [1900]; Central Asia and Tibet, vol. 1, pp. 268, 279 [1903];
and especially, Scientific results, vol. 1, pp. 246-250, 413 [1904]).
c Mares— Ann. Soc. meteor. Paris 12: 284-289 (1864); Zittel— Peterm. Mitt. 20:
185(1874); Grandjean— Bull. Soc.ggog. comm. Bordeaux (2) 19: 182(1896); Albert—
Actas Soc. cient. Chile 10: 171 (1900); Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 516 (1899);
Central ABiaand Tibet, vol. 1, p. 272 (1903) ; Stein— Sand-buried ruins of Khotan, p. 429
(1903); Beadnell— Geog. jour. 86: 387 (1910).
<* My attention was first called to this phenomenon by Dr. W J McGee, who has
observed that the most lofty (and therefore most exposed) dune of any complex fre-
quently has on its summit a hollow surrounded on all sides by a raised rim. Similar
hollows have been observed in the Capetown dunes by Braine (Proc. Inst. civ. engs.
150: 387 [1902]), in the dunes at Mogador (Moroccan coast) by Maw (Hooker and
Ball's Morocco and the Great Atlas, p. 453 [1878]), and on the English coast by Shone
(loc. cit. infra). Hedin observed among the dunes of the Takla-makan desert circular
hollows which he believed due to the meeting of two crescentic dunes, facing in oppo-
site directions (Through Asia, vol. 2, p. 828 [1899]; Peterm. Mitth. Erganzungsh. 131 :
238, 243 [1900]). Cf. also Reclus— Bull. Soc. geog. France (5) 9: 205-206 (1865);
Mushketov— Deut. Runds. Geog. Stat. 12: 149 (1890); Cholnoky— F8ldtani K6zl6ny
WIND-FORMED SAND RIPPLES. 67
The actual forms of natural dunes are of course exceedingly com-
plex, expressing in any individual case the resultant of many and ever-
varying factors, of which the degree of constancy in the direction of
the wind is doubtless the most important, and next to this the relation
between the amount of available sand and the wind velocity. ' The
topography of the underlying surface is also important and the phys-
ical properties of the sand are not without influence.
WIND-FORMED SAND RIPPLES.
Among the most interesting of the minor phenomena of sand-drift
is the formation of the systems of superficial ripples which are fre-
quently produced on smooth surfaces of drifting sand/ and which
resemble the ripples that occur on the sandy bottoms of streams or on
sandy beaches. The mechanism of ripple formation is not perfectly
clear, and it is not improbable that in this case, as in so many others,
forms apparently the same may result from quite dissimilar causes.
The formation of the typical eolian ripples is, however, probably con-
nected with the tendency of all moving fluids to take on a sinusoidal
82: 138 (1902); Beadnell— Geog. jour. 35: 387 (1910). It is easier .to imagine these
formed by eddies, and in any case they must be kept open by this means if they are
to endure. Brunhes, following out his theories of the importance of erosion by whirl-
winds, considers isolated circular hollows among dunes as formed in this way (Mem.
Accad. Nuovi Lincei (5) 21 : 129-148 [1903]). While this may be true in certain caseB,
it seems hard to imagine the circumtances under wnich a vertical eddy would be regu-
larly produced on the top of a high and approximately conical dune. On the other
hand, it is easy to see that the top of such a dune might be hollowed out by the hori-
zontal eddies set up by winds blowing up the dune slope from different directions at
different times. It may be, as suggested by Shone (Geol. Mag. (3) 10: 323 [1893]),
that the action of the eddy is sometimes initiated by a slight sinking of the center of
the sand heap under the action of rain.
«As, for instance, its cohesion. See GQnther — Sitzungsb. K. Bay. Akad. Wiss.
Munich 1907: 139-153; and analogous observations on snow dunes by Cornish
(Geog. jour. 20: 153 [1902]).
*Maw— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 28: 88 (1872); Rae— Nature 29: 357 (1884);
Walther — Denudation in der Wuste, p. 523 (1891) ; Cornish — Rept. Brit. Assoc.
1896: 794-795, Geog. jour. 9: 280 et seq. (1897); Baschin— Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin
84: 408-424 (1899); Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 515, vol. 2, p. 790 (1899);
Bertololy — Kr&uselungsmarken und DQnen, pp. 99-105 (1900); Ivchenko — Ann.
geol. min. Russie 7, I: 223-226 (1904), 8: 140-142 (1906); Joly— Sci. proc. Roy. soc.
Dublin (n. s.) 10: 328-330 (1904); Geinitz— Naturw. Wochens. J9: 1025-1031 (1904);
Hedin — Scientific results, vol. 2, pp. 410-440 (1905); etc. Eolian ripples in moder-
ately coaree gravel have been described by Richardson — Rept. Yorkshire phil. soc.
1902: 47; and Oldham— Mem. Geol. surv. India 34: 141 (1903). Similar ripples
occur on drifting snow. See Cornish — Rept. Brit, assoc. 1900: 816-817, 1901s
.398-399, Scott, geog. mag. 17: 1-11 (1901), Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 58, Proc.: ii, iv
(1902), Geog. jour. 20: 137-173 (1902), Quart. Jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 35: 14&-160
(1909); von Staff— Zs. deut. oster. Alpenver. 37: 45-48 [1906] and Giraud— Geo-
graphic 3: 345-347 (1901).
68 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
motion at high velocities.* Such a system of regularly recurring
eddies in the air would naturally impress itself more or less exactly
on the loose sand beneath. 5
THE PROPERTIES OF BLOWN SANDS.
Drifting sands may be of the most varied materials, ranging from
the nearly pure limestone sands of coral-fringed coasts to the quartz
sands of equal purity found on some beaches and in the older deserts.
Interesting dune areas of nearly pure gypsum sand occur in New
Mexico c and in Utah.* Dunes of clay aggregates are reported from
Texas.'
In general, the composition of any sand is dependent upon
that of the rocks from which it was derived; and since most drifting
sands are much mixed and derived from many and varied rocks, they
possess, when not too long exposed to the action of the disintegrating
agencies, a high degree of qualitative if not quantitative heteroge-
neity. On long exposure to mechanical disintegration and removal
there is, as already described, a tendency for sands to become siliceous,
and the remarkable purity of some desert sands/ is no doubt thus
attained. Even in these extreme cases there is usually, however,
some slight admixture of other minerals as is shown (amongst other
evidence) by the not inconsiderable productivity of the sands when
rendered stationary and supplied with water.?
In mechanical composition dune sands are somewhat more uniform.
As the result of numerous mechanical analyses, Udden* concludes
^ , — i i * 1
a See the experimental investigations of Reynolds on flowing water (Phil, trans.
Roy. soc. 174: 935-982 [1884]) ; and the theoretical deductions of Helmholtz (Crelle's
Jour. Math. 55 : 25-55 [1858]; Monateb. E. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1868 : 215-228).
In connection with the latter papers see Rayleigh — Proc. London math. soc. 11 : 57
(1880); and Kelvin— Nature 23: 45-46, 70 (1880). For an observation of sinuosities
in natural air currents see Baddeley — Whirlwinds and dust Btorms in India, p. 52
(1860).
& See Baechin— Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 34: 408-424 (1899); Centbl. Bauverwaltung
20: 231-232 (1900).
« Mentioned by the early explorers. Described by G. Gibbs — Amer. nat. 4 : 695-696
(1870); MacBride— Science (n. s.) 21: 91 (1905); Brady— Mines and Minerals 25:
529-530 (1905); and MacDougal — Botanical features of North American deserts, pp.
11-16 (1908).
41. 0. Russell— Geol. mag. (3) 6: 289 (1889).
« Coffey, George N.— Jour. geol. 17: 754-755 (1909).
/Walther — Einleitung in Geologie als Historische Wissenschaft, p. 795 (1893-4);
Schirmer — Le Sahara, p. 156 (1893); Doss — Eorrespbl. Naturforscherver. Riga 39:
31-40 (1896); Bertololy— Krattselungsmarken und Dunen, p. 5 (1900), etc.
9 For details concerning the chemical and mineralogical composition of eolian and,
other sands see Walther — Einleitung in der Geologie als Historische Wissenschaft, p. 837
(1894); Relgers— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1895, 1:16-74; Sabban— Mitt. Grossh. Meckl.
geol. Landesanst. 8: 20-52 (1897); Neuber— Deut. Runds. Geog. Stat. 27: 241-247
(1905); Warren— Tech. quart. 19: 317-338 (1906).
*The mechanical composition of wind deposits, pp. 9-26 (1898).
THE PKOPEETIES OF BLOWN SANDS. 69
that most drifting sand is composed of grains ranging in diameter
from 0.5 to 0.125 mm. a Indeed, the blown sand of any one locality
is likely to be even more uniform than this, though sands from differ-
ent areas will sometimes differ more widely as a result of varying
strength of wind, etc. This uniformity is a natural result of the
means by which the sands have been collected, and is to be expected
in the light of the process of air sorting, as described on pages 35-37;
The shape of the grains is largely dependent on the history of the
sand. Desert sands formed by insolations! disintegration 6 and not
much rolled about are angular/ while sand grains subjected to much
abrasion by either eolian or aqueous transport have the well-known
rounded form of stream-worn materia!.* The degree of rounding
carries no indication as to the means by which it was produced. If
anything, the eolian sand is likely to be the more rounded, for eolian
abrasion is just as complete as and probably more rapid than that
<* This conclusion is in accord with the results of the few mechanical analyses of
dune sands which have been made by the Bureau of Soils, and also with the results
of analyses cited by Thoulet--Bull. Soc. min. France 4: 263 (1881); Sabban— Mitt.
Grossh. Meckl. geol. Landesanst. 8: 43-49 (1897); FrQh— Vierteljs. naturf. Gee.
Zurich 44: 174-175 (1899); Oldham— Mem. Geol. surv. India 84: 150 (1903); Galu-
nov— Lfesnoi zhur. 83: 1217-1224 (1903); Lehmann— Jahresb. geog. Gee. Greifawald
10: 372 (1905); and Juritz— Trans. South African phil. soc. 18: 28 (1907). See also
Keilhack— Chemztg. 29: 723 (1905), and Atterberg— ibid. p. 1074 (1905); and
Table XII on p. 168 below.
5 By insolational disintegration is meant the mechanical splitting of rocks and rock
fragments due to unequal expansion (especially of the grains of different minerals)
under the rapid and intense changes of temperature which occur in the desert. See
Fraas— Aus dem Orient, pp. 176-177 (1867); Walther— Denudation in der WOste, pp.
481-500 (1891), Wustenbildung, pp. 176-177 (1900); Schirmer— Le Sahara, pp. 143-144
(1893); Obruchev— Verh. Imp. min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 88: 245-249 (1895)
Goodchild— Trans. Edinb. geol. soc. 7: 205-206 (1897); Chamberlin and Salisbury-
Geology, vol 1, pp. 44-48 (1904); Ivchenko— Ann. geol. min. Rusb. 7, I: 45-46 (1904)
Barrell— Jour. geol. 16: 176-179 (1908); and Lozinski— Bull. Intern, acad. sci. Cracow
1909: 1-25. Other observations have been made by Wellsted — Travels in Arabia
vol. 2, p. 79 (1838); Darwin— Journal of researches, ed. of 1901, p. 318; Sturt — Central
Australia, vol. 1, p. 180, 240, 244 (1849); Livingstone— Missionary travels, p. 149 (1857),
Zambesi, pp. 429,516(1865); Philippi— Viage al Disierto del Atacama, pp. 111-112
(1860); Vatonne, in Mircher— Mission de Ghadames, pp. 245, 271, 276 (1863); Jor-
dan — Physische Geographic lybischen Wuste, p. 127 (1876); Walther— Verh. Ges.
Erdk. Berlin 15: 249 (1888); Murray— Proc. Roy. geog. soc. (n. s.) 12 s 464-466
(1890); Branner — Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 7: 255 (1896); Barron and Hume — Topogra-
phy and Geology Eastern Desert of Egypt, pp. 285-286 (1902); Stahl— Vegetations-
bilder, 2, Heft 4, Tafel 24 and text (1904); Mac Dougal— Botanical features North
American deserts, pp. 77-79 (1908); Stein — Geog. jour. 34: 14 (1909), etc.
cSee, e. g., Walther— Denudation in der Wuste, Plate VII; C. C. Parry— Rept.
U.S. Mex. Boundary Surv., vol. 1, II: p. 10 (1857); Emory— ibid., I: p. 40;
La Touche— Mem. Geol. surv. India 85: 40 (1902); J. Ball— Aswan Cataract of the
Nile, p. 64 (1907).
d For instances of well-rounded sands in deserts see Blake — Pacific Railway Repts.,
2: 20 (1855), 5: 119 (1856); Holland— Rev. sci. (3) 1: 610 (1881); Phillips- Quart,
jour. Geol. soc. 38: 111 (1882); J. Ball— Aswan Cataract, p. 57, Plate III (1907); etc.
70 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
produced under streams or waves." The only difference is that
eolian rounding extends to particles so small that they would be
unaffected by water transport, 6 and this fact has been used as a proof
of the eolian origin of certain loessial deposits, the finest grains of
which are well rounded. c
The uniformity and coarseness (as compared with soil in general)
of drifting sand makes it exceptionally open in texture. It has been
shown by Slichter d that for spherical grains of uniform size (a con-
dition nearly approached by dune sands) the closest possible arrange-
ment of the grains leaves 25.90 per cent of unoccupied space, while the
loosest arrangement leaves 47.64 per cent, regardless of the size of
spheres. These percentages of pore space are, however, not large
More important is the relatively large size of the individual spaces,
which enables water to move into and through dune sands more
readily than is the case with more normal soils of less mechanical
uniformity. The rates both of absorption and of drainage are
greater than in deposits composed of or containing finer material.
Reference should be made, however, to the observation of Wesseley, e
later repeated by Shaler/ that dry dune sands sometimes offer con-
siderable resistance to the penetration of water. The sand grains
become wetted very slowly and the intergranular capillary films are
not readily set up. This may occur in certain cases, but it is probably
not a property of all sands, and in no case does it apply when water
is actually covering the general surface.
Although amply absorptive, sands have little power of retaining
moisture. All added water flows at once to lower levels and the
amount held by capillary action is far less than in finer materials.?
The water content of sands above the ground-water level is therefore
a See Sorby— Quart, jour. Geol. boc. 36, Proc.:50, 57-61 (1880); Phillips— Quart-
jour. Geol. soc. 37: fr-28 (1881); Klemm— Zb. deut. geol. Ges. 34: 779 (1882);
Goodchild— Trans. Edinb. geol. soc. 7: 208-211 (1897); Mackie— ibid, pp. 298-311;
Bonney — Geog. jour. 9: 302 (1897); especially Mackie's article.
& Daubr6e — G^ologie expe>imentale, pp. 250 et seq. (1867); and Sorby's article cited
in last note. Cf . also on the limit of attrition of beach sands, Shaler — Bull. Geol. soc.
Amer. 5:208(1894).
cSee, for instance, Bauer's observations on the Meissner loess (Zs. Naturw. 62:
330-331 [1889]); and Fruh's table of the shape of loess grains (Vierteljahrsch. naturf.
Ges. Zurich 44: 174-175 [1899]).
d Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 19, II: 306 et seq. (1899). Kemna has made the
same calculations (Bull. Soc. beige geol. 15: Proc. verb. 122-128 [1901]). Some
actual measurements by Ramann give values of 42.2 to 44.1 as the per cent of pore space
in dune sands (Zs. Foret- Jadgw. 30:370-371 [1898]).
e Flugsand, p. 60, 62 (1873).
/ Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 5: 211 (1894).
9 See the experiments of l/oughridge (Rept. Cal. agr. expt. stat. 1892-4: 80-100
[1894};, also Bull. JO, Bur. of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr.; and E. J. Kohler— Physika-
liache Eigenschaften des Sandes, 1906, where further literature is cited.
THE PROPEBTIES OF BLOWN SANDS. 71
lower than in normal soils, and this explains the xerophytic character
of all dune floras, even in regions of ample rainfall.* The overdrain-
age of sandy lands is, however, partially compensated by the slight-
ness of the evaporational losses to which they are subject. It has
been shown by Buckingham 6 in this laboratory that evaporation
from all soils takes place almost entirely from the surface, and that the
water in the lower layers can be lost by evaporation only by being
first raised to the surface by capillary action.* This "capillary
rise" can take place only when the moisture-films surrounding the
soil grains are continuous from the upper to the lower layers of the soil.
The process of mulching, by destroying this continuity, prevents or
retards the rise and loss of the soil moisture. In sands the capillary
films are less numerous, less closely interwoven, and more easily
broken, so that when evaporation is at all rapid the surface layer is
dried out faster than new moisture can be supplied by capillary rise,
and in consequence the connection with the lower moist layers is
broken and the rise and loss of water is prevented. Thus, although
evaporation from the surface may be very rapid on account of the
loose and open texture, the total evaporation from sands is usually
less than from more normal soils. The low capillary capacity of
sands causes on them the same results which are produced on the
soils of arid regions by the intensity of evaporation. The dry surface
layer acts as a natural mulch and protects the layers below. d Over-
drainage and not evaporation, therefore, is responsible for the char-
acter of xerophytic dune flora, though the dryness of the surface layer
does prevent the growth of shallow-rooted plants, and also the
germination of most seeds which find lodgment thereon. The plants
« Massart— Bull. Soc. roy. bot. Belg. 32: 7-43 (1893); Cowles— Bot. gaz. 27: 95-117,
especially p. 109 (1899); Adamovic— Bot. Jahrb. 33: 563-670(1904); Olsson-Seffer—
Bot. gaz. 47 : 85-126 (1909), New phytologist 8 : 37-49 (1909). On dune flora in general
Bee Wesseley—Flugsand, pp. 93-125, 329-332, 339-343 (1873); Warming— Vidensk.
medd. Naturh. for en. Copenhagen 43: 153-202 (1891); Erikson— Bihang K. Sveneka
vet.-akad. handl. 22, III, no. 3 (1896); Vuyck— De plantengroei der duinen, 1898;
Massart — Rec. Inst. bot. Leo Errera 7: 167-584 (1907); and the words cited in the
bibliography under Alpers, Andresen-Rabenholz, C. Bailey, Baruch, Benzon, von
Borbas, B0rgesen and Paulsen, Brackebusch, Brit ton, Bruyne, Buchenau, Buffault,
Cockayne, Coulter, Cowles, Davy, Ebner, Focke, Graebner, Hansen, Hanusz, Hapke,
Harshberger, C. A. Hart and Gleason, E. J. Hill, Humphrey, Ispolatov, Jannicke,
Kalmuss, Kearney, Kerner, Klinge, Klinggraeff, Knuth, Koch, Liebe, McDonald,
Mankowski, Massart, Mertens, G. F. W. Meyer, Mttller, Nilsson, Ndldeke, Pancifc,
Pound* and Clements (pp. 246-262), Ratzeburg, Razeburg, Reclus, Riefkohl, Royer,
Saj6, Schaefer, Senden et al., Sprenger, Suomalainen, Swellengrabel, Tansley, Thes-
leff, Viborg, and Wery. Bibliographies are given by Cowles — Bot. gaz. 27: 388-391
(1899); and Massart— Rec. Inst. bot. Leo Errera 7: 519-537 (1907).
6 Bull. 38, Bur. of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 9-18 (1907).
* This is, of course, in a soil without plant cover. Transpiration is excluded.
d See Bull. 38, Bur. of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 18-24 (1907).
72 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATEBTAL BY THE WIND,
which are best adapted to dune life* are fairly deep-rooted, and
often propagate themselves by means of roots extending beneath the
surface. 6
The constant presence of moisture a few inches below the surface of
all dunes, desert or humid, has been frequently observed. Where
the water table is close to the surface this internal moisture may be
due to capillary rise, but the height to which water will rise in uniform
sand is not great, and in the majority of cases the dune moisture
must be rain or dew which has been absorbed at the surface and
retained.* This is especially the case in the desert and it is this
property of sand which makes possible the little agriculture which the
desert will support. The occasional rainfall sinks at once into the
sand, and, protected from evaporation, flows easily and quickly to the
lower layers, becoming available to plants growing in the oases
situated in depressions of the surface. The frequent existence of
running, or rather moving, water within easy reach of the surface in
« See the papero cited on p. 71, especially those of Gowles.
ft As, e. g., the well-known sand-binder, the beach grwBB(AmmophUa armaria). A
photograph showing the means of propagation of this plant is given by Westgate — Bull.
65, Bur. of Plant Ind., U. 8. Dept. Agr., Plate II (1904).
c Forchhammer — Neues Jahrb. Min. 1841 * 5; Andresen — Om Klitformationen, pp.
106-110 (1861); Lenz— Timbouctou, vol. 2, pp. 54, 61 (1886); Laurent— Memoire but
le Sahara, pp. 11-13 (1859); J. G. Brown — Pine plantations on the sand wastes of
France, pp. 86-87 (1878); Wilkinson— Pe term. Mitth. 38: 72 (1892); Gerhardt—
Handbuch des Dunenbaues, p. 103 (1900); Cornish— Geog. jour. 15 x 12 (1900); Harsh-
berger— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1900 x 626; Richthofen— Fuhrer fur For-
schungsreisende, p. 117(1901); Benbow— Agr. gaz. N.S.Wales 12 x 1252(1901); Fippin
and Rice — Field operations, Bur. of Soils 1901 : 99; Braine — Proc. Inst. civ. eng.
150: 389 (1902); Macbride— Science (n. s.) 21 x 93 (1905); H. P. Baker— Proc. Iowa
acad. sci. 13 x 209 (1906); MacDougal— Botanical features of North American deserts,
p. 90 (1908), etc. The presence of moisture in dune sands is well illustrated at many
points in the Colorado Desert (and probably elsewhere) by the greenness of the bushes
(mainly Covillea tridentata) growing thereon, while bushes growing on less sandy soils
are yellow and faded.
<*See Andresen's experiments (Om Elitformationen, pp. 106-110 [1861]); and cf.
Holland— Compt. rend. Soc. geog. Paris 1890: 158-165; Rohlfs— Zs. Ges. Erdk.
Berlin 28: 296-305 (1893); and Braine— Proc. Inst. civ. eng. 150: 389 (1902). In
the heart of the Takla-makan desert Hedin dug a. well. The sand was moist 3 feet
below the surface and continued so to a depth of 10} feet, when it became perfectly
dry (Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 533 [1899]; Peterm. Mitth. Erganzungeh. 131: 244
[1900]).
It is of course possible, as suggested by Oleson-Seffer (New phytologist 8x 39-44
[1909]), that some dune moisture may be due to internal dew formation, the water
coming from lower layers moistened by the ground waten. Buckingham's experi-
ments above cited indicate, however, that the amount of water thus transferred can
not be great.
<See Kearney— Bur. plant ind., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 86, (1905); Laurent—
Mlmoire sur le Sahara, p. 14 (1859). On the absorption and storage of water by the
dune sands of the Arkansas Valley, see Darton— U. S. Geol. surv. Prof. pap. 52: 84
(1906), and Slichter— ibid. Water sup. pap. 153: 54 (1906).
THE PROPERTIES OF BLOWN SANDS. 73
depressions and along dry water courses is a commonplace of desert
geology. The native wells of the arid southwest, the water holes of
the Kalihari, the "soakages" of central Australia are all evidences
that in these deserts at least the aridity is of the surface only. Even in
the deserts of the most complete aridity, as, for instance, the Takla-
makan, ground water can be gotten by digging in wide areas con-
tiguous to the borders and to internal depressions or stream valleys.
Of course, this underground water may sometimes be derived from
lower water-bearing strata whose supply originates outside the
desert basin. Such are probably the artesian strata of the Sahara,
Central Australia, parts of Arizona, etc. ; and Lyons ° believes that all
the oases of the Libyan Desert are situated on the summits of anti-
clines and fed by waters rising from below. In most cases, however,
external supply is impossible and the desert ground water must be
from rainfall in the desert basin and on its watershed, which rainfall
is absorbed and conserved in the deep sandy soils. Travelers in the
desert speak often of the "intense evaporation" which leaves the soil
dry a few minutes after a heavy shower. Of course, evaporation is
intense, but the disappearance of the rain water from the surface soil
is due as much to absorption as to evaporation.
Though dune areas are usually barren, the sands are not infertile in
the sense that they lack the mineral elements of plant food. 6 Exceptfor
an occasional occurrence of nearly pure quartz, drifting sand contains
the ordinary soil minerals in sufficient quantities to sustain the growth of
plants, and wherever dunes or other sandy tracts have been reclaimed
they have proven perfectly capable of supporting an agriculturally
valuable vegetation. The great potential fertility of desert soils is
well known and all travelers and residents therein have noticed the
rapidity with which the desert will spring to life after a rain. e The
barrenness of dune areas is due to lack of water and to instability of
surface rather than to any deficiency of mineral plant nutrients; but
like all loose, porous soils, dune sands lack humus on account of the
activity of the processes of oxidation. The vegetable matter is
"burnt out," and both for this reason and on account of the physical
disadvantages of sandy structure, dune sand seldom forms soil of
a Quart, jour. Geol. boc. 50: 531 (1894). On the theory of Courbis that the great
dunee of the Sahara owe their position and fixity to the escape of water underneath
their site, see Courbie— Compt. rend. Soc. ge\>g. Paris 1890: 114-119, 256-261; Hol-
land— ibid., pp. 158-165; Gamier— ibid., pp. 305-306; Bernard— ibid., pp. 320-323;
and Blanc — Ibid . , pp . 363-372 . Of. the observations of Horusi tzky on the underground
source of the moisture of the dunes of northwestern Hungary (Foldtani K6zl6ny 84:
87S-375 [1904]).
& Wesseley— Flugsand, pp. 42-47, especially p. 47 (1873).
c See, e. g., Wellsted- Travels in Arabia, vol. 1, p. 182 (1838); PrzhevalskH— Reisen
in der Mongolie (German ed.), p. 491 (1881); Schirmer— Le Sahara, pp. 22-23 (1893);
W. J. H. King— Masked Tawareks, p. 226 (1903); etc.
74 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
unusually high value. Suitable plants will, however, grow very well
on it, and many dune areas now waste could be agriculturally utilized
if properly handled.
THE CONTROL OF DRIFTING SANDS.
The first step in the control and utilization of dune areas is the stop-
ping of sand movement and the establishment of a stable and perma-
nent surface. Such fixation is sometimes profitable because of the
value of the lands thus made available for agriculture, but more often
the work of control is rendered advisable on account of the encroach-
ment of the moving sands on more valuable land or on works of man.
In many parts of the world coastal dunes have caused great damage to
agricultural lands and in some cases to harbors, seashore villages,
etc.° Interior moving dunes are no less troublesome and have fre-
quently to be fought by the railways which pass through them as well
as by the owners of adjacent lands and buildings. In the United
States drifting sands have proven a menace on Cape Cod and Cape
Hatteras, at the southern end of Lake Michigan, along the Columbia
River in Oregon and Washington, at San Francisco, and in many
small areas elsewhere. 6 The interior areas of drifting sand in North
America are fortunately not extensive.
According to the methods usually employed, the fixation of a dune
area begins with the planting of some grass or similar plant which
<* See filie de Beaumont — Lemons de geologie pratique, vol. 1, pp. 199-213 (1847);
Andresen— Om Klitformationen, pp. 223-23G (18(31); Reclus— Bull. Soc. g£og. France
(5) 9: 210-212 (1865); Wesseley— Flugsand, pp. 221-222 et al. (1873); Topley— Pop.
eci. rev. 14: 138 (1875); Czerny— Peterm. Mitth. Erganzungsh. 48: 28 (1876);
Marsh — The earth as modified by human action, pp. 565-567 (1885); Merrill — Eng.
mag. 2: 602 (1892); Gifford— Ibid., 14: 605 (1898); Le Mang— Deut. geog. Blatt. 22:
240-245 (1899); Gerhardt— Ilandbuch deut. Dunenbaues, 150-170 (1900); Davy—
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. plant ind. Bull. 12: 56-57 (1902); Millar— Chambers's jour. (6)
8:236-237 (1905); Cobb— Nat. geog. mag. 17: 313-314 (1906); J. H. Pratt— Jour.
Elisha Mitchell sci. soc. 24: 125-138 (1908); Gray— Buried City of Kenfig, pp. 13-35,
(1909); and the works cited on pp. 54-56 above and note c below.
& See the works cited on pp. 54-56 above.
c Any extended discussion or review of the literature of dune control is outside the
scope of this bulletin. The general methods employed (with special reference to
European conditions) are fully described by Gerhardt — Handbuch des deutschen
Dunenbaues (1900). See also Wesseley — Der europaiBchen Flugsand und seine Kultur,
(1873); Fisher— Forest protection, pp. 524-538 (1895); and A. S. Hitchcock— Bull. 57,
Bur. plant ind. U. S. Dept. of Agr. (1904). The procedure employed in Cape Colony,
South Africa, is described by Braine (Proc. Inst. civ. eng. 150: 376-397 [1902]);
that in use in Australia, by Benbow (Agr. gaz. N. S. Wales 12 : 1249-1254 [1901]), and
Maiden (Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. N. S. Wales 37: 82-106 [1903]); and that of the
Chilean coast by Albert (Actas Soc. cient. Chile 10 : 135-317 [1900], 11 : 129-151 [1901]).
The important North American literature, so far as known to the author, is Scrib-
ner— Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1894: 421-436, 1898: 405-420; Gifford— Eng.
mag. 14: 603-614(1898); Saundere— Kept. Canada expt. farms 1901 : 62-77, 1902:
55-58; Davy— U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. plant ind. Bull. 12: 56-62 (1902); West-ate—
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. plant ind. Bull. 65(1904); J. Fletcher— Canad. forestry jour, li
THE CONTROL OF DRIFTING BANDS. 75
will bind the surface and protect it from attack by the wind. The
particular plant which is most useful in any individual case depends
upon the general ecological environment as well as upon the efficiency
of the plant as a sand binder, and many different plants have been
successfully used in different parts of the world. Of these the mar-
ram or beach-grass (Ammophila arenaria) 6 hoA been found particularly
useful in temperate climates, and especially so upon coastal dunes. 6
182-184 (1905); H. P. Baker— Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 13: 209-214 (1906); Bond in J. H.
Pratt— Jour. Elisha Mitchell sci. boc. 24 : 125-138 (1908); Zavitz— Kept, on reforest, of
waste lands S. Ont. (1909); and the reports of the Massachusetts commissioners and of
the United States engineers, cited on p. 54-55 above.
Other literature on dune control is given in the bibliography under A. R., About,
Agieev, Alker, Bagneris, F. Bailey, Bale, Bang, Batky, Baude, Bayberger,
Bechtel, Begg von Albansberg, BernatskH, Bert, Blelov, Bidrn, Blijdenstein,
Boitel, von Borbas, Bortier, J. G. Brown, Buffault, Burgsdorf, BykovskH, Cham-
brelent, Chumakov, W. R. Clarke, Clav6, Cockayne, Cotton, Crawford, Curzon
(pp. 55-58), Davydov, Dehillotte-Ramordin, Delamarre, Deminskft, Elisfeev, Engler,
Fabre, Faye, Feilberg, Gee, Gerhardt, Girardin, Gleditsch, Grempe, Hartig, Hedin
(Khorasan och Turkestan, vol. 1, p. 239), H easel man, Hey wood, Hofschneider, Hubeny,
Hubert, IvanovBkfl, Izvfestifa M-stva zemled. gosud. imushchestv., Jentzsch, Kargl,
Karsten, Keffer, Kerner, Kirk, Klinsmann, Knupffer, Kolesov, Konoval, Kostfaev,
Kozakovskil, Krasilshchikov, Kummer, Lakin, Laveleye, Lefort, Le Mang, Lidbeck,
Lindner, Lomonosof , Lozovskid, Luiggi, M., M. P., McNaughton, Makarov, Malakhov,
Mankowski, Marker, Marshall, Mattusch, Meguscher, Molnar, Montin, Muller, Nege-
lein, Nikitin, Nilsson, Paletskil, von Panne witz, Pfeil, Poisson, Ploe'tz, Pravitelstven.
Vfestnik, Privat-Deschanel, Raspopinskn, Rauner, Reclus, Reinke, Riston, Saj6,
Salomon, Samanos, Schelten, Schreber, Schumacher, Sharin, Siemssen, Sobolev,
Spasskft, Sprenger, Stewart, Titius, Tolle, Tourgee, Travers, Tslolkovskfl, U. S. -Forest
service, Vasselot de Regne", Viborg, Vfernleev, Volkov, Weidenkeller, Whitcombe,
Willey, and Witsch. Wesseley (Flugsand, pp. 256-264) gives a list of Hungarian and
German articles. Most of the early Hungarian literature there cited is not included
here. Much of the extensive Russian literature is also omitted but will be found, for
the most part, in the columns of the Lfesnol zhurnal.
a The general principles underlying the action of vegetation as a protection against
wind erosion have been discussed on pp. 28-29.
& Also known as Ammophila arundinacea, Psamma arenaria, and Amnio arenaria.
« On its use see A. S. Hitchcock — Bull. 57, Bur. plant ind. U. S. Dept. Agr. (1904);
Westgate — Bull. 65 of the same bureau, 1904; etc. On its use in the interior of Aus-
tralia see Maiden — Agr. gaz. N. S. Wales 6: 7-12(1895). On sand-binding plants in
general see Viborg — Beschreibung der Sandgewachse, etc., 1789; Cleghorn — Hooker's
jour. bot. 8: 52-54 (1856); Borggreve — Verh. naturh. Ver. preuss. Rheinl. Westf.
32, Cor.-bl.: 69-72 (1875); Barrande— Bull. Soc. geog. Paris (6) 17: 376 (1879); Craw-
ford—Trans. Proc. Bot. soc. Edinb. 14: 351-355 (1883); von Borbas— Bot. Centbl.
19: 92-94 (1884); Buchenau— Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen 10: 397-412 (1889);
Clarke, in Watts— Diet. econ. prods. India 6: 455-457 (1893); Scribner— Year-
book U. S. Dept. Agr. 1894: 421-436, 1898: 405-420, Bull. Div. of Agrostology,
14: 78 (1898); Gerhardt— Zs. Bauwesen47: 453-466 (1897); Davy— U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. plant ind. Bull. 12: 57-62 (1902); Saj6— Prometheus 13: 769-773 (1902);
Roberts— Kansas Agr. expt. stat. Bull. 121: 139-141 (1904); Bessey— Vegetations-
bilder 3, Heft 2: text for Tafeln 7 and 8 (1905); Kirk— Rept. N. Z. Dept.
Agr. 15 : 180-185 (1907); Massart— Rec. Inst. bot. Leo En-era 7: 268-272 (1907); Gill-
Jour. Dept. Agr. South Aust. 11: 1030(1908); and the general works on dune control
above cited and on dune flora cited on p. 71.
76 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
After the preliminary fixation has been accomplished dune lands
are in the vast majority of cases best put into forest, not alone
because trees are excellent protectors against wind action, but because
they can be made to yield a considerable financial return without
any danger of again starting the sand drift. Thus the pine planta-
tions on the great "landes" of Oascony not only fix the dunes and
protect the country from their encroachment, but furnish as well a
considerable revenue in the form of turpentine, rosin, and wood.*
In general, however, trees can not be made to grow on naked dunes,
and hence the necessity for a preliminary fixation with grasses or
other hardy plants.
The fixation of a dune not only prevents damage to plants by the
actual moving of the surface, but it betters the quality of the soil
itself by causing the retention of the finer products of weathering
and decay which are winnowed out of moving sands and blown clear
away A stationary dune always contains much dust, 6 which greatly
betters the soil both physically and chemically and enables it to
support a more varied and valuable flora.
The fixation of dunes, and especially of coastal dunes, often takes
place by natural processes. The force of the on-shore breezes
decreases rapidly with distance from the beach, e and the rate of
inland movement of the dunes soon decreases sufficiently so that the
hardier of the plants can take possession and begin the work of fixation.
With increasing permanence of surface and progressive decay of the
sand, plants of less hardihood can and do take hold until finally
natural forests arise and the fixation becomes complete.' On most
« The reclamation of these great sand wastes was begun by Bremontier in 1787, and
forms probably the most extensive and best known example of dune utilization. For
' further details see Bremontier— Jour, l'ficole polyt. Paris 2 : 61-70 (1797) and Ann.
ponts chauss. 5: 145-191 (1833); Gillet-Laumont,Tessier and Chassiron — Rapporteur
les M6moires de M. Bremontier (1806); also reprinted in the Ann. ponts chauss. (loc.
cit. pp. 192-224); J. C. Brown — Pine-plantations on the sand wastes of France (1878);
Poore — Essays on rural hygiene, pp. 353-369 (1894); Grand jean— Bull. Soc. geqg.
comm. Bordeaux (2) 19: 238-246 (1896); Le Mang— Deut. geog. Blatt. 22: 235-255
(1899); Bert — Les Dunes de Gascogne (1900); Duregne — Actes Soc. linn. Bordeaux.
57: 1-10 (1902); Engler— Naturw. Wochens. 17: 277-282, 292-295 (1902), etc.
6 Shaler— Bull. Geol. boc. Amer. 5: 211-212 (1894). Cf. Atterberg— Chemztg.
29: 1074 (1905). This conclusion is confirmed by a number of mechanical analyses
of sand from fixed and moving dunes made in the Bureau of Soils on samples collected
by the writer.
c On account of the higher resistance of land surface to the air currents; see Thos.
Stevenson— Jour. Scott, meteor, soc. 5: 103-108, 348-351 (1880); Nature 25: 607
(1882), 27: 432-433 (1883); Sokolov— Die Dttnen, pp. 9-12 (1894).
& On natural fixation see Travers — Trans. New Zealand inst. 14 : 91 (1882); Bracke-
busch— Peterm. Mitt. 89: 157 (1893); Cowles— Bot. gaz. 27: 300 et seq. (1899);
Adamovic— Bot. Jahrb. 33: 560-561 (1904); Massart— Aspect* de la vegetation en
Belgique, vol. 1, plates 10-13 (1908); Stevens — U. S. geol. surv. Water-supp. pap.
280: 220 (1909); Humphrey— Plant world 12: 81-82 (1909); etc.
DUST STORMS AND DUST PALLS. 77
coasts this natural fixation would become operative within a com-
paratively short distance from the shore were nature's processes
allowed to remain undisturbed. In fact, before human interference
began all coasts where sand is driven landward were probably pro-
tected by a belt of these naturally fixed and forested dunes. The
present trouble with coastal dunes is due almost entirely to the unre-
stricted exploitation of the timber, which left the sands exposed
and ready to recommence their drifting. Nor does the trouble stop
here, for improvident grazing and cutting of new growth prevents
the natural fixation which would otherwise take place. It is essen-
tial for the safety of much coastal land that the shore-line growth
be carefully and firmly protected against exploitation. Protection
is cheaper than reclamation.
DUST STORMS AND DUST FALLS.
All strong winds pick up much dust from the soil surface, and if
loose material be plentiful the wind storm will become a dust storm
and the air so thickly filled with dust that it will be difficult to
see or to breathe. Such storms are the sudden paroxysms of atmos-
pheric transport, quite analogous to the floods of streams and rivers.
They are striking, unusual, and abnormally intense manifestations of
that eolian translocation which is constantly going on more quietly
and more slowly and probably in much greater total amount.
Dust storms are of occasional occurrence everywhere, but they find
their especial province on the great steppes or high semiarid plains
of the continental interiors, where the soil is comparatively thinly
covered by vegetation and the winds find nothing' to break their
force. On the great plains of this character in eastern Europe and
the contiguous portions of Asia dust storms are of almost daily
occurrence during the drier seasons of the year. In the deserts also
all strong winds are dust laden and a tremendous quantity of mate-
rial is moved, both as fine dust and as drifting sand. The quantity
of the latter is often so great that small objects are rapidly buried
a For instance, the drifting sands of Gape Hatteras were probably started by timber
cutting just after the civil war (Cobb— Nat. geog. mag. 17: 313, note [1906]). The
cutting of the forests on the North German coast because Frederick I needed money
has since cost the German Government (in reclamation work) many times the amount
obtained for the timber (Mailer— Das Buch der Pflanzenwelt, vol. 1, p. 16 [1857]).
For other notices of the starting of sand drift by improvident exploitation, see Reel us —
Bull. soc. geog. France (5) 9: 216-218 (1865); Travers— Trans. New Zealand inst.
14: 90-93 (1882); March— The earth as modified by human action, ed. of 1885, p. 556;
Hey wood— Report on drift sands, 1893; Thesleff— Medd. Geog. fftren. Finland
2: 36-77 (1894); Lorenzen— Die Natur 48: 424-426 (1899); Fabre— Compt. rend.
Cong. geol. intern. 8: 790-791 (1900); Bertololy — Krauselungemarken und Dunen,
p. 163 (1900); Adamovic— Bot. Jahrb. 33: 561 (1904); Pratt— Jour. Elisha MitcheU
•ci.aoc.24: 125-138(1908); and the various works on dune control cited on pp. 74^75.
78 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
and tracks of men or animals obliterated in a few moments. 9 The
tales 6 of the burial of caravans and armies by sand storms are
doubtless fabulous, 6 but these storms are really very. severe and it is
difficult, though perhaps not actually dangerous, to face them. 4
But the desert storms carry much fine dust in addition to the drift-
ing sand, and this dust is of even greater importance geologically
and to the soil, for fine materials are not confined to the desert as is
the sand, but can be, and are, carried across its borders into the
more humid areas beyond. This subject has already been briefly
discussed and it has been pointed out that the removal of weathered
material from desert areas is entirely effected in this way, both by
the action of storms and by the cor^stant carrying of small quantities
of dust by ordinary winds.
There are thus two general types of dust storms. The one blows
dust from place to place over the steppes or other regions of poorly
protected soil, attacking the surface as it goes; the other collects
dust from the desert and carries it outward over and into regions
which it can not attack and where no new load can be obtained.
The distinction between these two types is convenient rather than
necessary; they are marked by no essential differences in nature;
they are separated by no sharp line. It is, of course, apparent that a
dust storm may originate in a steppe area, collect dust there and
carry it outward as does a storm of the desert class; while, on the
other hand, so long as a dust storm is within the confines of the
desert, it parallels exactly the behavior of a storm of the steppes.
The utility of the distinction lies in the fact that the storms of the
steppes carry dust into other areas far less often than do those of the
desert. Furthermore, the behavior of the desert storms within the
desert is of little interest. Only their external effects are of importance.
It has already been pointed out on page 48 that in storms of the
steppe character, and in fact in all storms blowing over an attackable
surface, the materials of the load do not remain the same from place
to place, but that there is a constant interchange between the air and
o For an instance see Wellflted — Travels in Arabia, vol. 1, p. 88 (1838).
& £. g., the army of Cambyses (Herodotus, book III, chap. 26). See also the legends
of the burial of cities in the Takla-makan desert, quoted from early travelers by
Stein— Sand buried ruins of Khotan, pp. 430, 439 (1903).
c See Palgrave — Narrative of journey through Arabia, vol. 1, p. 17 (1865); Holland —
Rev. sci. (3) 1 : 612 (1881).
<* For first-hand descriptions of desert sand storms see Tristram — The great Sahara,
p. 331 (1&50); Duveyrier— Les Touareg du Nord, p. 40 (1864); Benjamin— Bull.
Amer. geog. soc. 18: 33 (1886); Borton — Trans. New York acad. sci. 9: 115-116
(1890); Schaubert-Globus 71: 93 (1897); Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 516,
542 (1899); W. J. H. King— Masked Tawareks, p. 133-134 (1903); Stein— Sand buried
ruins of Khotan, pp. 428-429 (1903); J. W. Gregory— Dead heart of Australia, p. 98
(1906); etc. Albert describes a similar storm in the dune area on the Chilean coast
(Actas Soc. cien. Chile 10 : 171 [1900]).
DUST STOBMS AND DUST FALLS. 79
the soil. The result of this interchange is that in passing over such
country dust storms may neither raise nor lower the mean level of
the surface, for the material removed is in general replaced by other
material deposited. It does not follow that dust storms have no. im-
portant action, for it is precisely this interchanging translocation which
most highly promotes the mixing of soils — perhaps the most important
(agriculturally at least) of the varied geologic activities of the wind.
In the western part of the United States dust storms of both types
are of frequent occurrence. The desert storms arise in the arid
basins of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and southern California, and
carry dust sometimes westward toward the Pacific slope and some-
times eastward into the plains region of Oklahoma and Texas. The
storms of the steppe type occur on the Great Plains extending from
northern Texas and northeastern New Mexico northward through
Oklahoma, eastern Colorado, western Kansas, Minnesota, and the
Dakotas well toward the Arctic Circle. Udden a has collected
accounts of thirty-nine storms during 1894 and 1895, one or more of
which occurred in each of fourteen States. He estimates that on the
average for the country between the Rocky Mountains and the
Mississippi River the minimum yearly number of such occurrences
is two and the maximum four, while for the Great Basin and the
Western Slope the figures are five and twenty, respectively. Many
instances occurring before and after the period examined by Udden
are recorded in the columns of the Monthly Weather Review. 6 The
conditions in Australia are quite similar to those in the Western
United States, and dust storms are of frequent occurrence. 6 China
« Pop. flci. mon. 49: 655-664 (1896).
6E. g., 23: 13, 15-19, 52, 130, 381 (1895); 2»: 465 (1901); 80: 29 (1902); 33:
350 (1905); 85: 583 (1907); 36: 103 (1908). See also Amer. geol. 3: 397-399 (1889);
Tarr— Amer. nat. 24: 455-459 (1890); Somers— Science 21 : 303(1893); Hershey—
Amer. geol. 23: 380-382 (1899); Russell— U. S. Geol. suit. Bull. 19»: 18, 21 (1902);
Reagan— Science (n. a.) 28: 653 (1908); and Mendenhall— U. S. Geol. sur v. Water
sup. pap. 225: 27 (1909). Dust storms, mostly of local origin, in the Central and
Eastern States are described in the Monthly weather review 17: 89 (1889); 23: 130
(1895); 30: 269 (1902); 31: 536 (1903); 87: 156 (1909); and by Cutting— Archives
of sci. 1: 81-85 (1870); Somers— loc. cit.; J. W. Moore— Science (n. s.) 15: 714
(1902); McLouth— Rept. Mich. acad. sci. 4: 168-173 (1902); Verrill— Science (n. s.)
15: 872 (1902); Baskerville and Weller— ibid. p. 1034; Lindsey— ibid. 19: 893
(1904). Keyes has published observations on the dust storms of the Missouri Valley
(Amer. jour. sci. (4) 6: 299-304 [1898]).
c Sturt— Central Australia, vol. 2, p. 97 (1849); Tenison-Woode— Jour, Proc. Roy.
soc. N. S. Wales 16: 7&-79 (1882); Smyth— Nature 30: 170 (1884); H. C. Rus-
sell— Quart, jour. Roy. met. soc. 13: 311-312 (1887); Brittlebank, Stickland, and
Shephard— Vict. nat. 13: 125 (1897); Steel— Rept. Austr. assoc. adv. sci. 7: 334-335
(1898); Phipson— Chem. news 83: 159-160, 253 (1901); Liversidge-^Jour. Proc. Roy.
«oc.N.S.Wales36: 255-272(1902); Mullen— ibid. 37: 144(1903); Chapman and Gray-
son— Vict, nat. 20: 17-32 (1903); Dixon— Nature 67: 203 (1903); Dove— ibid.; P.
Marshall— ibid. 68: 223(1903); Noble— Mon. weath. rev. 82; 364-365(1904); Krebe—
Beitr. Geophys. 8: 34 (1906),
80 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
is subject to storms of the desert type, arising in the central Asian
deserts, and similar phenomena are encountered in other parts of
the earth. b Even in the Arctic regions dust storms are not un-
known. 6 The well-known falls of sirocco dust in southern Europe
will be later discussed in detail.
Showers of fine dust sometimes occur unaccompanied by any strong
wind. Such an occurrence must be regarded simply as the final
stage of a dust storm which has lost its velocity and is depositing its
load. Indeed, if the dust has been traveling in the higher strata of
the atmosphere it may fall into and be deposited by winds very
different in direction from that by which its transport has been
effected. Similarly the dust may be carried down by rain or snow,
causing the muddy rains, black snows, etc., frequently mentioned
in the daily press.
MATERIAL MOVED BT DUST STORMS.
The amount of material carried by dust storms is naturally diffi-
cult to determine, but is certainly quite considerable. From various
« W. H. Johnson—Jour. Roy. geog. boc. 37: 1-47 (1867); Przhevalskfl— Mongolia
2: 219 (1876); Pumpelly— Amer. jour. Bci. (3) 17: 139 (1879); Guppy— Nature 24:
126 (1881); Harrington— Amer. meteor, jour. 3: 79-82 (1886); Lehzen— Globus 56:
361 (1889); Minssen— Annalen Hydrog. 80: 552 (1902); Takagi— Kiaho Sh. 25: 219-
232 (1906).
b in Egypt: Barron and Hume — Topography Eastern desert of Egypt, pp. 93-97,
287 (1902). In Arabia: Wellsted— Travels in Arabia, vol. 2, p. 150 (1838); von
Benko— Reise Schiffes "Frundsberg," p. 61 (1888); Walther— Einleitung in der
Geologie als historische Wissenschaft, p. 578 (1894); Oesselmann — Annalen Hydrog.
30: 552(1902); Annales Hydrog. (2) 24: 159 (1902); Prager— Annalen Hydrog. 81:
22-23 (1903). In India and Central Asia: Baddeley — Whirlwinds and dust storms in
India (I860) and articles cited in the bibliography; Durand — Compt. rend. Assoc.
Franc, avan. sci. 7: 474-477 (1878); Cook— Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 9: 137-147
(1883); Obruchev— Geog. Zs. 1 : 261 (1895); Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 446, 458-
463, 468, 498 (1899), Scientific results, vol. 1, p. 247-248, 289-293 (1904); Abbe— Mon.
weath. rev. 29: 175 (1901); Morozsevich— Bull. Comm. geol. St. Petersburg 22: 48-49
(1903); Huntington— Pulse of Asia, p. 97, 157, 299 (1907). In Persia: Tietze— Jahrb.
geol Reichsanst. 27 : 347-348 (1877); Benjamin— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 18 : 33 (1886);
Schaubert— Globus 71: 93-94 (1897). On the steppes of southeastern Europe and
adjacent portions of Asia: Middendorff— Sibirisch'e Reise, vol. 4, p. 385 (1875); Neh-
ring— Tundren und Steppen, p. 127 (1890); Klossovskfl— Ciel et terre 15: 559-566
(1895); Heintz— Poln. entsik. russ. selsk. khoz. 8: 50-51 (1903). In South America:
Darwin— Journal of researches, p. 133, ed. of 1901; Christison— Jour. Scott, meteor, soc.
5: 335-347 (1880); Annalen Hydrog. 17: 350-351 (1889); Bodenbender— Peterm.
Mitth. 89 : 237 (1893); Machon— Bull. Soc. Vaud. sci. nat. (4) 39 : xxxiii (1903). In
Europe: Buchholz— Wetter 10 : 144(1893); Yates— Nature 55 : 508(1897); Denham—
ibid. 65: 317 (1902); Fry— ibid. p. 317; C. Reid— ibid. p. 414; Mill— Quart, jour.
Roy. meteor, soc. 28: 229-252(1902); Marriott— Nature 67 : 391(1903); Boeddicker—
Symons's meteor. mag.4:3: 2-4 (1908). In Iceland: Thoroddsen— Peterm. Mitt. 31i
285, 287, 290, 291, 293, 330, 332 (1885); Meunier— Compt. rend. 136: 1713-1714
(1903).
c See Davison— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 50; 479 (1894) and authorities there cited.
MATEBIAL MOVED BY DUST STORMS. 81
indirect data Udden ° has made a series of estimates of the amount
of solid material suspended in the air during a dust storm, and has
obtained values ranging from 160 to 126,000 tons per cubic mile of
air. The wide variation is due to the varied, indirect, and inaccurate
character of the data upon which the estimates are based. Taking
very conservative values derived from these estimates, and using
rather more accurate data for the number, velocity, and duration of
dust storms in the Western States, he concludes that on the average
about 850,000,000 tons of dust is carried 1,440 miles each year, thus
doing in this region alone about 1,225,000,000,000 "mile tons" of
transport.
The amount of material suspended in the air during a dust storm
is not, however, so good a measure of the translocation thus effected
as are measurements of the material actually deposited on the surface
or removed therefrom. The deposits made by the dust storm of
January 11-12, 1895, in Indiana, were measured at several points
and found to vary from 1.50 grams per square meter (4 tons per
square mile) to 3.79 grams per square meter (10.5 tons per square
mile). 6 The thickness of the deposit was measured at Rockville,
Ind., and found to be about 0.02 inch. At this point the quantity
of dust was 1.5 grams per square meter, which is the minimum
observed, and it is therefore probable that at other points the layer
of deposited dust had a thickness as great as, if not greater than, the
value given. It is difficult to generalize from so meager data, but
in the light of the known frequent occurrence of dust storms over
the States west of the Mississippi, it seems not extreme to estimate
the mean annual deposit* over this area as not less than 0.01 inch/
In some places the rate of deposit is much greater/ but even at the
figure given soil would accumulate at the rate of 1 inch per century,
which is quite rapid in comparison with most geologic processes.
Estimates of the deposit by two Australian storms are given by
Chapman and Grayson ? as 17.5 grams per square meter (50 tons per
«Pop. sci. mon. 49: 658-663 (1896).
&Mon. weath. rev. 23: 17-18 (1895).
c Campbell— Mon. weath. rev. 23: 18 (1895).
d Desert areas must, of course, be excluded since it is largely there that the dust
originates and the tendency is toward a lowering rather than a raising of the surface.
There are, too, occasional places other than deserts where the soil is removed rather
than deposited. It might be more correct to say "mean annual transfer " instead
of "mean annual deposit." See in this connection p. 48 above.
« Keyes estimates the annual deposit of the dust storms along the Missouri River
as 0.01 inch (Amer. jour. sci. (4) 6: 302 [1898]), and Shimek estimates the rate of
accumulation of Mississippi Valley eolian loess as 1 mm. (0.04 inch) a year (Bull.
Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 5: 320 [1904]).
/ For instance, the deep drifts of soil deposited by the storm of April 15, 1895, in
western Kansas and described in the Mon. weath. rev. 23 : 130 (1895).
Vict. nat. 20: 21-22 (1903).
63952°— Bull. 68—11 6
82 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATEKIAL BY THE WIND,
square mile) and 12.5 grams per square meter (35.5 tons per square
mile), respectively. So much soil was blown about during the dry
seasons of 1827 to 1830 in South America that the boundaries of
many estates were obscured and in some cases permanently lost.
The quantities of dust carried into Europe by dust storms originating
in the Sahara are estimated on pages 97 et seq., below.
Inside the deserts much larger quantities of sand and dust are
moved about, but it is impossible to distinguish between the drifting
sand of the dunes and the finer material carried by dust storms. As
already mentioned, the general tendency is toward a lowering of
the desert surface, but there are undoubtedly many cases of local
accumulation of dust as well as of drifting sand. Rohlfs b describes a
storm which covered his party an inch deep with sand; Zittel c
records the deposit of 26 cm. of sand on his tent in one storm; and
Jordan d mentions the deposit of 25 inches on a level spot under sim-
ilar circumstances. According to Noble e drifts of sand 12 feet
deep were produced in three months in Australia.
It is probable that in all these cases the deposit was largely drift
sand, but Hedin' records that the winter dust storms of the Tarim
basin deposit so much impalpable dust on the vegetation that it
causes the sheep that eat it to have strangles, and Huntington,? in
the same region, found it necessary to brush his writing paper every
ten or fifteen minutes to prevent his pen being clogged by deposited
dust.
DISTANCES OF TRANSFER
The theoretical considerations controlling the distance of trans-
port have been discussed on pages 47-49, and it is there pointed
out that authentic instances of long transport are rare, because of
the usual impossibility of identifying the dust and the consequent
necessity for relying upon indirect evidence as to its source. Occa-
sionally evidence is furnished by the simultaneous existence of the
same storm over considerable areas, or by the possibility of tracing
the path of the storm by observations made along its path. Udden
in his examination of western dust storms, alrekdy cited,* records
the areas thus covered by seven storms (all for which data were
o Darwin— Journal of researches, p. 133, ed. of 1901.
fcPeterm. Mitth. Erganzungsh. 25: 11 (1868).
cjahresb. geog. Gee. Munich 4-5: 258 (1875).
* Kftlnische Zeitung, Apr. 14, 1874, quoted by Walther (Denudation in der Wttete,
p. 504), who cites other similar occurrences.
«Mon. weath. rev. 32: 364 (1904).
/Through Asia, vol. 2, p. 798 (1899). On deposit by these storms see also Scientific
results, vol. 1 , p. 291-293 (1904). The deposits may, perhaps, aggregate 2 or 3 meters
in a century.
9 Pulse of Asia, p. 157 (1907).
A Pop. sci. mon. 49: 656 (1896).
DISTANCES OF TRANSFER. 83
available) as 80, 120, 140, 216, 270, 300, and 400 miles in the longest
observed direction, giving an average of 218 miles. A Chinese dust
storm is known to have existed simultaneously from Hankow to
Chinkiang, i. e., over 450 miles. It should be mentioned that these
are minimum values, since they represent the distances between
points where the storms were observed and recorded. The storms
may have covered much wider areas.
The dust which fell in Missouri on February 6 and 7, 1895, must
have come from western Kansas and Nebraska, as all the intervening
country was covered with snow and ice. 6 A similar case is reported
from Norway. 6 On April 2, 1892, there fell on a ship 95 miles west
by south of Nagasaki a yellow dust which must have come from the
interior of China and have been carried by the wind to the place
where it was observed,* 1 a distance of at least 1,000 miles. The
Australian dust storms have several times reached New Zealand , e a
distance of about 1,500 miles. Even better examples of long dis-
tance translocation are the dust storms originating in the Sahara
and traveling over southern and central Europe, as discussed on
pages 88 et seq. Dust from these storms has been observed in
northern Germany' and in England,? a distance of about 2,000
miles.*
DUST WHIRLWINDS.
Among the most striking of arid region phenomena are the dust
whirlwinds or columns of whirling dust-filled air, a few inches to
several feet in diameter, and from a few feet to hundreds of feet in
height. They may be seen nearly every hot day, sometimes running
rapidly over the surface; sometimes remaining nearly, if not quite,
stationary, but never losing their rapid rotation. They usually last
only a few minutes, but occasionally persist much longer. One
observed by Pictet lasted for over five hours.' They are largest and
last longest on the flat, bare plains of the desert, and are usually
seen in a calm or when only a light breeze is blowing, although their
a Guppy— Nature 24: 126 (1881).
*Mon. weath. rev. 23: 52 (1895).
cSee Livereidge— Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. New South Wales 36: 250 (1902).
d Milne — Nature 46: 128 (1892). A similar storm occurred on March 31-April 1,
1863. See Pumpelly— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 17: 139 note (1879).
«For instance, see Marshall — Nature 68: 223 (1903); Chapman and Grayson —
Vict. nat. 20: 29 (1903); Noble— Mon. weath. rev. 32: 364 (1904).
/Judd — Nature 63: 514 (1901); Hellmann and Meinardus— Monograph cited on p.
90 below.
fMill and Lempfertr-Quart. jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 30: 57-91 (1904).
* The distance covered by the storm of March 9-11, 1901, is given by Walther at
2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers). Naturw. Wochens. 18 : 604 (1903).
< Colladon— Arch. sci. phys. nat. Geneva (3) 2 : 37-39 (1879).
84 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND,
occurrence in windy weather is not unknown. The rotation seems
to be indiscriminately clockwise or contra-clockwise, as frequently
one as the other.
These whirls have been noticed by many travelers in desert and
steppe regions b and have been carefully observed by Baddeley c in
India, and by Pictet d in Egypt/ They are frequent in China / and
on the pampas of South America,* and occasionally occur during the
a Baddeley — Whirlwinds and dust storms in India, p. 5 (I860). It is possible
that the whirls occurring in windy weather are simply convectional eddies, and not
formed by the causes producing the typical calm weather whirls. See p. 88 below.
& Burnes — Travels into Bokhara, vol. 3, p. 40 (1834); Stephenson — Bibl. univ. (n. s.)
6: 155-156 (1836); On*ed— Schumacher Jahrb. 1838: 228-254; Goebel, Claus, and
Bergmann — Reise in die Steppen sudlichen Russlands, vol. 1, p. 202(1838); Peltier,
in Becquerel — Traite experimental de Electricity et du magn6tisme, vol. 6, p.
184-189(1840); Martins— Ann. m6teor. France 1: 225-244 (1849); Muncke, in Geh-
ler's Physikalisches Wfirterbuch, vol. 10, p. 1635-1723(1842); W. Reid— Attempt to
develop the law of storms, 3d ed. ( p. 469 (1850); Junghuhn — Java, vol. 2, p. 572, 584
(1854); Belt^-Phil. Mag. (4) 17: 47^53 (1859); Tristram— The Great Sahara, p. 67
(I860); Schlaefli— Zs. Meteor. 5: 469-472 (1870); Tietze— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst.
27: 347-348(1877); Durand— Compt. rend. Assoc, franc, avan. sci. 7: 475(1878);
Hooker and Ball— Marocco and the Great Atlas, p. 122 (1878); H. H. Russell— Quart,
jour. Roy. met.soc.6: 48(1880); Cook— ibid., 9: 141(1883); Faye— Compt. rend. 97:
12&-127 (1883); Russell— Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 3: 197 (1881-82); Wolkowitz—
Annalen Hydrog. 15: 437 (1887); Brewer— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 21: 211 (1889);
Abercromby — Quart. Jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 16: 121-125(1890); Hume — Geol. mag.
(3) 9: 559 (1892); Carnegie— Spin if ex and sand, p. 254-272 (1898); Hedin— Through
Asia, vol. 1, p. 485, 497 (1899); Fischer— Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 35: 411 (1900),
Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 133 : 122 (1900), Mitt. geog. Ges. Hamburg 18 : 154 (1902);
Wright— Quart, jour. G6ol. soc. 57: 244-250 (1901); Cummins — Science gossip
(n. s.) 8: 161-166 (1901); Fountain — Mountains and forests of South America, p. 278-
279 (1902); Russell— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 199: 19 (1902); Ivchenko— Ann. geol.
min. Russie 7, I: 48, 50, 221-222 (1904); Gregory— Dead heart of Australia, p. 26,
120-121 (1906); Young— Survey notes (Egypt) 1: 105-108 (1906); Craig— ibid.
357, 374 (1907); Huntington— Pulse of Asia, p. 148 (1907); Pearson— Nature 81: 500
(1909); and authorities cited in following notes. Whirls will form not only in desert
and steppe regions, but also over any bare surface subject to overheating by the sun
(see the theory of origin outlined on the following pages). Thus they have been
observed on paved streets, even in winter (Procter — Mon. weath. rev. 33: 154
[1905]); on the burned-over moors of Germany (Miethe — Prometheus 10: 795-796
[1899]) ; and in similar places elsewhere.
c Phil. mag. (3) 37 : 155-158 (1850), Jour. Asiat. soc. Bengal 19 : 390-394 (I860), 21 :
140-147, 264-269, 333-336 (1852), and Whirlwinds, etc. (1860). On the Indian whirls see
also C. A. Gordon-^Jour. Asiat. soc. Bengal 23: 365-381 (1854); and Chatterjea— Proc.
Asiat. soc. Bengal 1865 : 124-125.
<* Quoted by Colladon — Arch. sci. phys. nat. Geneva (3) 2: 35-42 (1879). See
also report in Prometheus 8: 347-348 (1896).
* See also the studies of Reye (Die Wirbelsturme, 1872), and of Weyher (Lea
tourbillons, 1887).
/ Richthofen— China, vol. 2, p. 550 (1877); Krebs— Globus 88: 124 (1905).
9 Humboldt — Aspects of nature, English ed. of 1850 (Sabine), vol. 1, pp. 36, 150.
See also authorities cited on p. 80, note *.
DISTANCES OF TRANSFER, 85
dry season even in the humid regions. 9 One of the most interesting
phenomena in connection with dust whirls is the occurrence of
systems of several whirls, each revolving rapidly about its own center
and also moving about a common center in a more or less perfect
circle a few rods in diameter. Such a system was noticed by Bad-
deley, 6 and others have been observed in North Carolina,* in Kansas,*
and in South Africa/ Douglass/ and later the present writer have
observed such systems in process of formation out of single large
whirls of the usual type.
Baddeley 9 believed that dust whirls were of electrical origin and
that the whirling column was an entity composed of "some form of
electricity" or of "a permanent, indestructible form of imponderable
matter hitherto undescribed. " He was able' to obtain charges from
conductors inserted in the dust columns and from wires projecting
into the atmosphere while dust clouds were passing.* In one case the
current so obtained was sufficient to cause the deposit of silver from
silver cyanide solution.' With advancing knowledge of the nature
of electricity this theory has become untenable, and it seems probable
that any electrical charges are effects rather than causes.' The
mutual friction of innumerable fine particles suspended in very dry
« Instances in England are described by Taylor — Nature 38: 415(1888); Lovel —
ibid. 40: 174 (1889), 48: 77 (1893); Upcott— Rept. Marlborough Coll. nat. hist,
eoc. 1901: 90; Boys— Symons's met. mag. 39: 134 (1904); and Clough— ibid.
40: 104-105 (1905). On the continent: vom Rath— Ann. Phys. Chem. (Pogg.)
104: 631-640 (1858); Quincy— Bull. Soc. sci. nat. Chalon-sur-Sadne 28: 183-186
(1902); "R. V. "—Wetter 19: 117-118 (1902); and Schiefer— ibid. 21 : 260-261 (1904).
In Iceland : Ciel et terre 3 : 331 (1882). The dust-whirls of Mexico have been described
by Virlet d'Aoust^Bull. Soc. geol. France (2) 15: 129 et seq. (1857), Compt.
rend. 83: 890-892 (1876). The dust-whirls in semiarid North America are described
by Nipher— Nature 18: 488 (1878), 20: 456(1879); I. C. Russell— U. 8. Geol. surv.
Monogr. 11: 154 (1886); "M."— Amer. met. jour. 2: 285-286 (1885-6); Merrill—
Eng. mag. 2 : 600-601 (1892); Walther— Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 19:52-65 (1892); and
R. T. Hill— Eng. min. jour. 85: 687 (1908).
h Whirlwinds, etc., p. 7 (1860).
c Kimball— Mon. weath. rev. 30: 316 (1902).
d Mon. weath. rev. 27: 111 (1899).
« Cummins — Science gossip (n. s.) 8: 163 (1901). See also a description in Nature
25:291(1882).
/ Amer. met. jour. 11 : 405 footnote (1895).
g Works cited on p. 89, note*. The quotations are from "Whirlwinds and dust
storms in India."
* Loci cit., especially the article in the Phil, mag., and p. 13, 32-33 and 53-54
in "Whirlwinds and dust storms. " Electrical phenomena in connection with dust
whirls have also been recorded by Peltier — Becquerel's Traite experimental electri-
cite" et magn^tisme, vol. 6, p. 184-189 (1840); and Cook — Quart, jour. Roy. meteor,
soc. 9:141-143(1883).
< Loc. cit. (Phil. mag. (3) 37: 158).
i As was indeed suggested by Faraday in a letter to Baddeley in 1850. (Quoted
in Baddeley 'a book, p. 4).
86 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
air would be likely to generate charges of considerable magnitude.
That the electrical manifestations are merely incidental and not
always present is further indicated by the inability of Fictet to obtain
any charge from a well-developed whirl near Cairo. It is now
believed that dust whirls occur when the layer of air next to the
ground becomes overheated by contact with a bare surface highly
heated by the direct rays of the sun. This overheated air may
remain for some time in an instable condition, but sooner or later
something will disturb the equilibrium and the air will rush suddenly
upward, leaving a space to be filled by the inrush of air from the
sides. The mutual interference of these inrushiug currents causes
the whirl. 6 A whirl once formed by the action of the side currents
will be maintained by the uprush of heated air constantly supplied
by the hot surface. The spiral motion, once started, tends to main-
tain itself and the whirl acts as a chimney to remove the hot surface
air to higher levels. Unless general atmospheric conditions (such
as winds, etc.) interfere with its existence, the whirl will continue so
long as the supply of overheated air is kept up. This explains the
longer life of whirls in the hot deserts, and the brief continuance of
those in humid and vegetation-covered areas where the ground surface
is not so highly or so uniformly heated.
This theory is in accordance with the facts that whirls occur
most often on level surfaces, bare of vegetation, and while the sun
is shining; that the interior of the column is much hotter than the
surrounding air; c an,d that they occur most frequently during
calms.* Minute dust whirls have in fact been artificially produced
by heating an iron plate on which fine silica had been sprinkled.*
Great whirlwinds have also been several times noticed over fires
where much air was rising in a body/ Similar whirlwinds occur
a Coliadon — Arch. sci. phys. nat. Geneva (3) 2: 39 (1879). Electrical phenomena
have also been observed in connection with ordinary dust falls when' no whirls are
present. See Amaduzzi — Riv. sci. ind. 1901: 61; and Chauveau — Ann. Soc.
meteor. France 51: 77 (1903).
b On this theory of dust whirls, see Buchan — Handy book of meteorology, 2d ed.,
p. 306 (1868); Reye— Die Wirbelsturme, pp. 46-54 (1872); Davis— Elementary meteor-
ology, pp. 36-37 (1894); etc.
cPictet, in Coliadon— Arch. sci. phys. nat. Geneva (3) 2: 38-39 (1879); and
Khanykov — Soc. geog. Paris Rec. voy. m&n. 7: 448-449 (1864).
* When winds are blowing the surface air is usually too much mixed and disturbed
to become greatly overheated. Cf. Horner — Ann. Phys. (Gilbert) 73: 95 (1823).
« Wood — Phil. mag. (5) 47 : 349 et seq. (1899). On the artificial formation of whirl-
winds by the mutual interference of air currents, etc., see Vettin — Ann. Phys. Ghem.
(Poggendorf)102: 246-256(1857); Hallier— ibid. 112:343-344 (1861), 114:657-^60
(1861); and Weyher— Les tourbillons, 1887.
/Redfield — Amer. jour sci. 36: 50-59 (1839); Olmsted — Proc. Amer. assoc. adv.
aci. 4: 361-365 (1850), Amer. jour. sci. (2) 11: 181-187 (1851); DaviB, quoted by
Abbe— Mon. weath. rev. 34: 164 (1906); and note in Pacific Rural Press 2: 183
(1871).
DI8TANCB8 OF TEA N8 FEB. 87
above the craters of volcanoes during eruptions, and over heated
layers of fresh lava and ashes. 6
According to the theory just explained, the air of the whirl moves
in an ascending spiral, and the suspended dust which makes the
whirls visible may be considered as derived from the soil and carried
upward by the whirling air. c The rapid rotation of the lower end
of the whirl furnishes the abrasive action necessary to loosen the
soil. The heated air, carrying its load of dust, ascends in the spiral
until it reaches the point where its density is the same as that of
the surrounding air, when it spreads out more or less horizontally,
leaving the dust which it carries to fall earthward and to be blown
here and there by the winds. In hot climates, where the over-
heating of the surface air is considerable, whirls may reach great
heights, and since they are able to carry more and coarser material
than can be handled by ordinary winds, they are very important
agents in supplying dust to the winds and in enabling the latter to
attack the surface. The erosive activity of whirlwinds has been
pointed out by Brunhes, d and Virlet d'Aoust* mentions the exist-
ence, on the slopes of the Mexican mountains, of soils composed of
material lifted by whirlwinds from the plains below.
Tornadoes and waterspouts are apparently similar to the dust
whirls just described, but have probably a different origin/ It is
believed that these storms originate in the higher levels and grow
downward to the earth. The aspirating action is not so marked as
in the dust whirls, and the great damage done by these storms is
due not to it but to the violence of the whirling wind and the explosive
action of imprisoned air in houses, etc., momentarily within the area
of greatly reduced pressure at the center of the whirl. The water
supposed to be sucked up by waterspouts is probably derived from
the clouds and not the sea, since it has been found to be fresh.*
Tornadoes always occur in connection with cyclones * and usually
o Redfield— Amer. jour. sci. 36: 57 (1839); von Seebach— Abh. K. Gee. Win.
Gdttingen 13: 57 (180S); Mack— Met. Zs. 18: 250-256 (1901).
& J. Roth— Der Vesuv und die Umgebung von Neapel, p. 130 (1857); Bailleul —
Compt. rend. 31: 8 (1850).
c Contrary to the opinion of Faye (Compt. rend. 83 : 766, 893 [1876]), who considered
the dust whirl as descending and the lifting of dust due to the rise, outside the whirl, of
masses of heated air which had descended inside and escaped at the bottom.
d Compt. rend. 135 : 1133 (1902); Mem. Accad. Nuovi Lincei (5) 21 : 129-148 (1903).
See also Walther— WQstenbildung, p. 132 (1900).
'Bull. Soc. geol. France (2) 15: 129 etseq. (1857).
/On the nature of tornadoes, see Reye — Die Wirbelsturme, (1872); Davis — Ele-
mentary meteorology, pp. 271-284 (1894), and other text-books of meteorology.
9 Davis — Elementary meteorology, p. 283 (1894).
*The word "cyclone" is used in its technical sense to designate the circular storms
of wide area (100 to 500 miles). The popular application of the word to all violent
storms, aad especially to the above-described tornadoes, is incorrect.
88 MOVEMENT? OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
in a certain quadrant. They are probably in some way secondary
manifestations of the larger storms set up by the various convectional
currents occurring within it.
It is of course possible that a tornado might occur over a desert or
similar exposed surface, and if so it would probably move about a
good deal of soil material, but the absence of any rising current
precludes the lifting action which is shown by true dust whirls.
The latter are distinguished from tornadoes by their dependence on
local surface conditions rather than on those of the atmosphere in
general. They are independent phenomena, not connected with any
general storm, travel much less rapidly, and are not nearly so violent.
The momentary dust eddies common on windy days in streets
and fields are due simply to the wind blowing around obstructions, or
to the mutual interference of opposing currents. Such eddies are of
constant occurrence in the wind and become visible whenever they
happen to be in such relation to attackable deposits as to be able to
pick up dust. They are probably, as already pointed out, of con-
siderable assistance in enabling the wind to acquire and support its
load of solid material.
EUROPEAN DUST FALLS.
The best known and most studied of all dust storm phenomena are
the falls of reddish dust which occur in southern and central Europe,
sometimes alone, sometimes with rain or snow. The dust occasion-
ally fills the atmosphere so completely that dry fogs are produced,
and these phenomena are sufficiently common off the west coast of
northern Africa to have earned for this part of the ocean the title of
the "dark sea. " b From the apparent connection of this oceanic dust
with the trade winds comes its German name of "Passatstaub"
(trade-wind dust). In English it is usually called sirocco dust.
Falls of this dust have been known in Europe and along the Mediter-
*Baddeley (Phil. mag. (3) 37: 158 [1850]) mentions a "dust whirl" which was
strong enough to crack brick walls and uproot trees. It is probable that this was a
tornado and not a dust whirl . Doctor Baddeley did not see it himself. Such violence
on the part of a true dust whirl would be almost inconceivable. Ivchenko has,
however, reported whirls which were violent enough to upset a man (Ann. geol.
min. Russie 8, 1: 139 [1906]).
& Schmid — Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, p. 796 (1860). The dust fogs of this region
were noted by the Arabian geographer Edrisi in the twelfth century (Tchihatchef —
Rept. Brit, assoc. 1882: 360). For later accounts see Darwin — Quart, jour.
Geol. soc. 2 : 26-30 (1846), also summarized in his Journal of researches, p. 5, ed. of
1901; Hellmann— Monatsb. E. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1878: 364-403; Dink-
lage— Annalen Hydrog. 14: 69-81, 113-123 (1886), 16: 145-149 (1888), 17: 450-454
(1889), 19 1 313-318 (1891), 22: 140-143 (1894), 26: 246-254 (1898), 29: 30-37
(1901), 31 : 430-438 (1903); Krebs— Beitrfige Geophysik 8 : 7-42 (1906) ; M. Jentzsch—
Annalen Hydrog. 37 : 373-376 (1909). Similar dust fogs occur off the coast of China,
near Australia, and elsewhere.
EUROPEAN DUST FALLS. 89
ranean since the earliest times. They are mentioned by Homer, B
Virgil, 6 and Livy/ and Ehrenberg d cites a number of well authen-
ticated cases in the first three or four centuries before Christ. The
first known scientific description is that of Wendelin/ There is no
reason to believe that they occurred any less frequently in former
times than they do to-day, but owing to the incompleteness of the
records only a small proportion of the older occurrences are now
known. Ehrenberg's first / historical list gave 340 occurrences down
to 1847. This was supplemented and brought down to 1870 by
another list * giving 193 occurrences. Many falls have occurred since
1870 and have been noticed in the literature.* The two great falls of
a Iliad, Book 11, lines 52-54; Book 16, lines 459-460.
*>iEneid, Book 4, line 454.
c HiBtoriae, Book 3, chap. 10; Book 10, chap. 31.
<* Passatstaub und Blutregen, p. 59 et seq. Professor Ehrenberg'B investigations of
sirocco dust are the most extensive on record, the results being published in the
Abhandlungen and the Monatsberichte of the Berlin Academy from 1844 to 1875.
The earlier of these investigations (up to 1849) were collected and published in book
form in 1849, under the title "Passatstaub und Blutregen. " This work contains his
theory of the origin of sirocco dust (see p. 90 below) and the observations upon which
it was based. His later investigations (1848 to 1871) were collected and summarized
in an article entitled "Uebersicht der seit 1847 fortgesetzten Untersuchungen uber
das von der Atmosphere unsichtbar getragene reiche organische Leben, " and pub-
lished in the Abh. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1871: 1-150, 233-275.
«Pluvia purpurea bruxellensis (1646).
/Passatstaub und Blutregen, pp. 59-127 (1849).
a Abh. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1871: 14-60. Many occurrences are cited
in the early chronicles and 83 of them have been noted by Hennig — Katalog bemer-
kenswerter Witterungsereignisse (1904).
* Partial lists are given by Silvestri (1869-1872)— A tti. Accad. Gioenia Catania (3)
12: 137 (1878); Macagno and Tacchini (1870-1879)— Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1: 72
(1879); Denza (1862-1869)— Compt. rend. 70: 534 (1870); Passerini (1813-1889)—
A tti. R. Accad. Georg. econ.-agr. Florence (4) 24: 150 (1901); Trabert and Valentin
(1864-1901)— Jahrb. Naturw. 17: 212-213 (1901-2); and Galli (1813-1903)— Mem.
Accad. Nuovi Lincei (5) 21: 404-406 (1903). Many occurrences are cited in the
columns of Wetter, the Meteorologische Zeitschrift, the Annalen der Hydrographie,
Ciel et terre, and other meteorological periodicals.
Literature (not elsewhere cited) on European falls of sirocco dust (and possibly
other materials) is given in the bibliography under Abels, Alvarez, Ankert, Archen-
hold, Assmann, Bara£, Barfod, Becke, van Bemmelen, Bijelic, l\>roi, van den
Broeck, Gampini, Canaval, Casali, Ghauveau, Ch6neau, Chladni, Choffat, Cittadella-
Vigodarzere, Cohn, Coles, Courty, Cramer, Daubr6e, Denza, Deschmann, DesBau,
Dove (Gesetz der Stttrme, p. 69), Eredia, Evans, Finckh, Flammarion, Flores, Forel,
Fournet, Friedel, Fryer, Gaberel, Galli, Ginestous, Gottsche, Gregorio, Hampe, Hann,
Hapke, Hellmann, Hepworth, Hubner, Ippen, Jaubert, Jeremiah, Jdrschke, Jussieu,
Karrer, Kittel, C. Knab, Korostelev, Krebs, Lais, Langell, Leopold Ferdinand, Leps,
Lori6, Ludeling, MacCarthy, Marinelli, Mascart, Mazelle, Meinardus, Meunier, Millose-
vich,H.C. Moore, Moureaux, Miittrich, Nell, Nicati,Ossig, Palmeri, Palmieri, Paris and
Roncali, de Parville, Passerini, Paudler, Perry-Coste, Peschier, Phipson, Pichler, Prett-
ner, Prior, Prohaska, Ragona, Reissek, Riccd, Richter, R6na, Rucker, M. Schuster,
Schwarz, Schwedoff, S6billant, Sccchi, Seeland, Seidl, Silvestri, Souza-Brand&o,
Sprenger, Stefano, Stiglleithner, Svoboda, Symons's met. mag., Tacchini, Tacquin,
Tarry, Teisserenc de Bort, Vacher, Valderrama, Vi venot, West, A. S. White, Wilbrand,
Yates, and Zona.
90 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
the last decade were those of March 9 to 12, 1901 ; and of February 22
to 23, 1903. The former has been discussed in an admirable mono-
graph by Hellmann and Meinardus, a and also by Valentin b and
Vanderlinden. c The fall of February, 1903, has been discussed by
Herrmann, d Hellmann/ Mill and Lempfert,' and Vanderlinden.?
EARLY THEORIES REGARDING EUROPEAN DUST FALLS.
During the Middle Ages the dust was supposed to be of extra-
terrestrial origin,* and the falls were regarded with great terror, which
was accentuated by the bloodlike appearance of the rain drops
charged with dust.* Sementini ' gives a graphic account of the fright
of the people during a fall of dust at Gerace, in Calabria, Italy, on
March 14, 1813, on which occasion the popular terror was intensified
by the accidental breaking out of a fire which brought conviction
that the end of the world was at hand.
The cosmic theory was succeeded by that of Ehrenberg* who
believed that there existed in the upper atmosphere a mass of per-
manently suspended living matter (mainly diatoms) in microscopic
particles, and that dust falls occurred whenever this upper stratum
was so distorted as to come in contact with the land surface. Ehren-
berg was led to adopt this view because he found in the various sam-
ples of fallen dust which came under his examination diatoms repre-
senting every part of the world, especially some which he considered
characteristic of South America. Some of these diatoms were living,
and he therefore felt bound to assume that they came from an aerial
ocean of life which was continually being replenished by organisms
lifted by air currents from all parts of the earth's surface. His
especial interest in the organic remains of the air dust blinded him to
« "Der grosse Staubfall vom 9 bis 12 Mare 1901 in Nordafrika, Sud- und Mittel-
europa, " Abh. K. pre use. meteor. Inst. 2, No. 1, 1901.
* Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wise. Vienna 111, 11a: 727-776 (1902).
c Ciel et terre 22 : 257-262 (1901).
* Annalen Hydrog. 31 : 425-438, 475-483 (1903).
t Meteor. Zs. 20: 133-135 (1903).
/Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 30: 57-91 (1904).
9 Ciel et terre 24: 44-59 (1903).
* See Arago — Astronomie populaire, vol. 4, pp. 208-216 (1857); and Quetelet—
Physique du gldbe, chap. 4, p. 322 (1861).
' Ehrenberg has collected the accounts given by the early chroniclers of the appear-
ance of bloody rain, blood on articles of food, etc. (Monatsb. K. preuss. Akad. Wise.
Berlin 1850: 215-246). Many of these appearances are to be ascribed to bacterial
action, etc., and not to dust falls. It is claimed that rain which fell at Oppide Mam-
ertina, Italy, May 15, 1890, actually contained true blood, believed to be from birds,
Passerini— -Atti. R. Accad. econ.-agr. Georg. Florence (4) 24s 150 (1901).
J Jour. Chem. Phys. (Schweigger) 14 : 130-132 (1815).
* Paesatstaub und Blutregen, pp. 57, 163 et seq. (1849).
EARLY THEORIES REGARDING EUROPEAN DUST FALLS. 91
the indications of terrene origin offered by the inorganic constitu-
ents, and his observations of the occurrence in European air dust of
diatoms apparently characteristic of South America and other far
countries may be explained by assuming that these forms actually
exist in Europe or Africa, but have never been reported, although, for
that matter, there is no insuperable objection to believing them actu-
ally carried, though perhaps in small number, from South America or
even places still farther away. The atmosphere always contains a
great deal of permanently suspended dust, and diatom fragments,
being light in proportion to their surface area, are likely to remain
long in suspension and be carried far and wide. It is quite possible
that any air dust collected in Europe would contain a few particles,
diatomaceous and otherwise, which had come from other continents.
The evidence is now conclusive that the major part of the typical
sirocco dust is from the desert of the Sahara."
* It is necessary, of course, to except local showers of material derived from the
neighborhood, and the part of all fallen dust which is of local origin. (See p. 106.)
Showers of material other than sirocco dust also occur occasionally, as, for instance,
pollen from pines and similar trees. On such occurrences see GSppert — Ann. Phys.
Chem. 21 : 550-578 (1831); Kaemtz— Meteorology— English trans, by Walker, p. 465
(1844); Amer. jour. sci. 39: 399 (1840), 42: 195-197 (1842); Arago— Oeuvres com-
pletes, vol. 12, p. 469 (1859); Ernsts-Nature 4: 68 (1871); Bureau and Poiason—
Compt. rend. 83 : 194-196 (1876); Carpenter— Nature 20 : 195-196 (1879); A. Wilson—
ibid., 266-267 (1879); Mon. weath. rev. March, 1879, p. 16; Tissandier— La Nature
1887, II : 62; C. Turner— Nature 66 : 157 (1902); Forel— Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. 39 1
L (1903); Sci. Amer. 88: 243 (1903); Jaubert— Ann. Obs. Montsouris 5:333 (1904).
A fall of lichens with rain has been reported from Persia by De Candolle — Geographic
botanique raisonnee, vol. 2, pp. 614-615 (1855). Small live fish are said to have fallen
at Madras, India (Harriots-Struggles through life, vol. 1, pp. 141-142 [1809]); at
Singapore (Castelnau— Compt. rend. 52: 880-882 [1861]); at Winter Park, Fla.,in
June, 1893 (T. R. Baker— Science 21 : 335 [1893]); and at Tillers Ferry, S. C, in 1901
(Mon. weath. rev. 29: 263 [1901]). There is a well-authenticated case of the fall in
the Gothard Alps on August 30, 1870, of a considerable quantity of crystals of common
salt, one of which weighed 0.76 gram. (Kenngott — Viertelj. naturf. Gee. Zurich 15 x
377-379 [1870] ; Vogler— Flora 89 : 86-89 [1901]) . Falls of terrestrial pebbles and small
stones weighing from a fraction of a gram to several grams are recorded by Phipson —
Rept. Brit. Assoc. 1864, Trans, sees.: 37; Nordenskiold — Ofvers. K. Vet.-akad. forh.
41,VI:3-15(1884);Meunier— Compt. rend. 113: 100-101(1891); and Rollier— Actes
Soc. helv. sci. nat. 90, 1: 248-258 (1907). A turtle 6 inches by 8 inches and a stone
fragment I inch by } inch, both incased in ice, fell at Vicksburg, Miss., on May 11, 1894
(Abbe— Mon. weath. rev. 22: 215 [1894]).
Certain cases of red or pink colored snow are caused by the growth of microscopic
plants, especially the Protococcus nivalis. See de Saussure — Jour. nat. phil. chem.
arts 1: 511-513 (1797); Peschier— Bibliotheque univ. 12:259-265 (1819); Bauer-
Quart, jour. sci. 7 : 222-229 (1819); Annal. chimie 12 : 72-88 (1819) ; Bauer— Phil, trans.
110: 165-173 (1820); Kaemtz— Meteorology, English trans, by Walker, pp. 455-456
(1844); A. P. de Candolle— Verhandl. Schweizer Ges. 1825: 26-28; Darwin-Journal
of researches, p. 327, ed. of 1901; L. J. Agassiz — Rept. Brit, assoc. 1840, trans.: 143;
Arago— Oeuvree completes, vol. 12, p. 472-488 (1859); L. Fischer— Mitth. naturf.
92 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
THE SAHARAN ORIGIN OP SIROCCO DUST.
The Saharan origin of sirocco dust was suggested by Lavagna*
in connection with a discussion of the fall of November 27-28, 1814,
and probably by even earlier writers, but the suggestion was opposed
by Ehrenberg, and has gained general acceptance only within the
last twenty-five years. 6 The character of the dust itself suggests a
desert origin, as it consists very largely of very fine splinters of
quartz and a still finer claylike dust often gathered into flocks or
aggregates c which is probably the final dfibris from the disintegration
of the feldspathic and similar minerals. Mica flakes are found in
nearly all samples, as is to be expected in view of their high surface
mass ratio and consequent facile flotation. Other minerals fre-
quently present, though always in small quantity, are feldspars
(orthoclase and probably plagioclase also), calcite, magnetite, zircon,
rutile, tourmaline, hornblende, epidote, and apatite. Pyrite, hema-
tite, chromite, ilmenite, garnet, augite, talc, and gypsum have been
occasionally found.* The reddish color is probably due to ferru-
Ges. Bern 1867: 210-213; Wittrock— Botaniska not. 1883: 76-79; van Haast—
Nature 30: 55 (1884); and notes in Nature 63: 471-472 (1901); and Symons's
meteor, mag. 36: 33-34 (1901).
Black and gray rains and snows are sometimes caused by the presence in the atmos-
phere of much smoke from industrial establishments, great fires, etc. See Arago —
Oeuvres completes, vol. 12, p. 466 (1859); W. N. Shaw— Jour. San. inst. 23: 323
(1902). Many notes of occurrences are given in the columns of Nature.
One of the most interesting of the early theories regarding the nature of sirocco dust
is the statement of Meyer and Stoop (Ann. gen. sci. phys. nat. 2 : 269-271 [1819]) that
the red rain which fell near Bruges on November 2, 1819, was colored by the presence
of a comparatively large quantity of dissolved chloride of cobalt. This is highly
improbable, and the error is probably to be ascribed to faulty analyses. The rain may
have contained traces of cobalt (see p. 121 below) but hardly more than traces.
aGiorn. fis. chim. stor. nat. (2) 1: 32-36 (1818).
& It was strongly opposed by Silvestri in 1876 (Atti Accad. Gioenia Catania (3) 12 :
146-151 [1878]); and by Casali even so late as 1901 (Reeto del Carlino, Bologna, April
15-16, 1901, through Flores— Boll. Soc. geol. ital. 22: 81 [1903]).
c Lais— Nature 16: 197-198 (1877); Editorial— Mon. microscopic jour. 18: 159
(1877); Max. Schuster— Si tzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 93: 84 (1886);
Camerlander— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 38: 289 (1888).
<*For mineralogical examinations of sirocco dust see Dufrenoy — Compt. rend
13: 62-63 (1841); Cannobio— ibid., 215-219; Reissek— Ber. Mitt. Freunden Naturw.
4: 153 (1848); Hellmann— Monatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1878: 402; Sil-
vestri— Atti Accad. Gioenia Catania (3) 12: 123-151 (1878); Macagno and Tacchini—
Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1 : 68-69 (1879); von Lasaulx— Tschermak's min. Mitth. (n. s.) 3 :
528(1880); Max. Schuster— Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 93: 83-85 (1886);
Camerlander— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 38: 288, 291, 297-298 (1888); Ginestous—
Compt. rend. 123: 1093-1094 (1896); Dinklage— Annalen Hydrog. 26: 253 (1898);
Hellmann and Meinardus — Der grosse Staubfall, p. 54 et seq., 90 (1901); Becke — Anz.
Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 38 : 107-109 (1901), Met. Zs. 18 : 31&-321, 462-463 (1901);
Achiardi— Atti R. accad. econ.-agr. Georg. Florence (4) 24: 143-147 (1901); Frflh —
THE SAHARAN ORIGIN OF SIROCCO DUST.
93
ginous matter. Diatoms and other organic materials are not infre-
quently present in considerable amount.
It is probable that the rarer minerals mentioned belong largely, if
not entirely, to the local material which is necessarily intermixed
with all eolian deposits, for if these minerals do exist in the true
African dust (as is not impossible) it is probable that they are in
the form of particles far too fine for detection and determination.
They form the claylike and apparently amorphous portion which is
always present.
Table V. — Chemical analyses of sirocco dust
Number
I.a
n.6
III.6
IV.«
V.d
VI«.
VII./
vm.f
T*f»lity. ....
Tyrol.
Palermo.
Palermo.
Naples.
Taor-
mina,
Sicily.
Lamber-
hurst,
England.
Tunis,
Africa.
Desert
dust
from
Biskra.
Date of fall
Mar. 31,
1847.
Apr. 14,
1874.
May 17,
1879.
Mar. 10,
1901.
Mar. 19,
1901.
•
Feb. 22,
1903.
Mar. 10,
1901.
SiOi
15.90
9.58
17.42
16.90
3.26
3.29
65.04
.40
2.45
6.80
3.16
1.96
.02
1.12
14 41
64.00
.24
1.56
7.00
2.58
1.90
1.17
1.16
13.69
49.40
21.52
7.65
7.08
42.48
21.19
7.95
8.16
2.89
3.56
3.39
50.50
20.20
7.23
9.50
2.43
2.53
1.28
73.45
2.36
4.50
5.25
68.90
AlfOt
.09
FetOt
1.53
CaO
7.37
MgO
2.08
KtO
2.96
2.84
.22
3.77
1.32
NajO
.79
p,o»
Trace.
COi
33.49
4.81
6.71
6.48
13.28
4.15
21.97
21.98
8.19
23.49
20.36
9.50
7.22
a Oellacber— Wiener Ztg., June 2, 1847, quoted by Ebrenberg, Passatstaub und Blutregen p. 27 (1849).
b Macagno and Tacchinl— Ann. meteor, ital. (2) l: 66 (1879).
ePalmerl— Rend. R. Accad. scl. fls. Naples (3) 7: 157 (1901).
d Analysis by Simmonds, quoted by Thorpe— Nature 68 : 222 (1903). An analysis of the material soluble
In hydrochloric acid is also given. Cf. also Judd— Nature 63: 514 (1901).
« Thorpe— Nature 68: 54 (1903). Analysis of material soluble in hydrochloric add is also given.
/ Bertalnchand— Compt. rend. 132: 1153 (1001).
o Analysis by Macagno, quoted by Tacchinl— Trans. R. Accad. Llncei (3) 7: 135 (1883).
The diemical composition of sirocco dust is also in perfect accord
with the Saharan hypothesis, as is apparent from a comparison of
analyses 1 to 6 of Table V with analysis 7 of the same table, which
represents the dust which fell in Tunis, Africa, in March 1901, and
Met. Zs. 20: 174 (1903); Basarow— La Nature 31, II, nouv. sci.: 6 (1903); Forel—
Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. (4) 39s xxvii (1903); Mill and Lempfert — Quart, jour.
Boy. meteor, boc. 30: 74-75 (1904); Prinz— Ciel et terre 24: 25, 80, 293-300 (1903).
For purposes of comparison there is appended a mineralogical analysis by Thoulet
of Band from near Wargla, in the Sahara (Bull. Soc. min. France 4: 268 [1881]):
Per cent.
Quartz 89.46
Feldspar 9.47
Calcium carbonate and clay 67
Chloride of potassium and sodium 17
Hematite, chroma te, garnet, olivine, amphibole, pyroxine, etc. . . .23
100.00
94 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
with analysis 8, which represents the fine material separated by
water elutriation from a sample of desert sand collected at Biskra,
in the Sahara. In order to make them of value for comparison all
the analyses are expressed in percentages of the ignited weight, and,
where necessary, they have been recalculated to bring them to this
basis. The percentage of loss on ignition is given separately in the
last line of the table. The analyses of European sirocco dust are
as uniform as could be expected when allowance is made for local
admixture; thus the low silica in No. 1 is due to the large amount of
calcium carbonate, which in turn is probably due to the presence
of calcareous material derived from the neighborhood. The most
noticeable and surprising difference between the Sahara dust (analysis
8), and that fallen in Europe is in the content of alumina. It would
seem that the amount of this constituent present in European dust
must have its source elsewhere than in the desert sands. It may
perhaps come from laterite deposits south of the desert, but it is
more probably due to the local admixture of kaolin clays. It is
noticeable that the analyses of Palermo dust (Nos. 2 and 3) corre-
spond almost exactly, even in alumina content, to the analysis of
Sahara dust. From the situation of Palermo it is to be expected
that dust fallen there would be rather unusually free from local
admixture, and likely to represent the true African material with
greater exactness than would dust fallen farther north. The Tunis
analysis (No. 7) is remarkable only for the high silica. It is probable
that the European dust is lower in this constituent because of its
removal by elutriation during translocation. The finest material
being more largely nonsiliceous the process of air sorting would tend
to eliminate silica, and the material would be expected to become more
and more siliceous the nearer the point of collection to the point of
origin. Material collected at the place of origin ought therefore to
be the most siliceous of all, and from this point of view the silica
content shown by analysis 8 may seem too low. However, this
dust was removed from the desert sand by water, not by air, and is
therefore likely to be more largely composed of the finer particles.
Water elutriation permits of much more accurate separations than
does the air elutriation, which takes place in the more or less variable
currents of natural winds. The dust of analysis 8 may have under-
gone in water a sorting equivalent to that which would be produced
by a long air voyage.
oThifl could be settled by an examination of the dust for free alumina, but the
analytical methods are unfortunately so unsatisfactory that the results are incon-
clusive. See Thorpe—Nature 68: 223 (1903). On the relation of sirocco dust to
laterite see Doelter— Mitth. naturw. Ver. Steiermark 38: xlvii-xlviii (1901); and
Ippen— Centbl. Min. 1901: 57&-582.
THE SAHARAN ORIGIN OF SIROCCO DUST.
95
In Table VI are given the maximum, minimum, and average values
of the principal constituents as calculated from twenty-six of the
best European analyses found in the literature. Analyses 1 to 7,
inclusive, of Table V are included. As before, all analyses are reduced
to percentages of the ignited weight, and the per cent loss of weight
on ignition is given separately. No great accuracy can be ascribed
to these figures. The analyses were made by many different methods
and many of them are incomplete. The number of determinations
entering into the average for each constituent is given in the first
column of the table.
Table VI. — Average chemical composition of sirocco dust*
Constituent.
BiOt
AliO.
FetOi
CaO
MgO
KtO
NaiO
PtO,
COt
Loss on Ignition
No. of
analyses.
Maximum.
Minimum.
20
73.45
15.90
19
28.50
.24
19
17.42
1.56
24
16.90
17
3.77
Trace.
9
3.66
1.02
8
3.39
.03
3
1.16
.22
20
33.49
3.77
24
36.40
4.00
Average.
67.5
14.3
8.0
8.3
1.7
2.5
1.7
.8
12.4
16.5
« The analyses used in compiling this table are the following:
Analyses I to VII of Table V.
Dust fallen on ship on the Atlantic. O. W. Qibbs— Ann. Phya. Cham. (Poggendorf) 71 1 567 (1847).
Fallen at Idrla. Italy, April 14, 1813. Vauquelin— Ann. chlra. phys. (2) 89: 438-442 (1828).
Fallen at Verpilliere. France, October 16, 1847. Du Pasquier— Mem. Acad. sci. Lyon 1: 5-16 (1845).
8ame fall as last, but evidently another analysis. Quoted by Ehrenberg— Passatstaub and Blutregen.
p. 43 (1849).
Fallen at Oraubflnden, Switzerland, Feb. 4, 1851. Will— Jabresb. relnen Chem. 1851: 883.
Five analyses of dust fallen at Palermo, Sicily, 1870 to 1878, belonging to the same sot as Nos. n and in
of Table V. Macagno and Tacchini— Ann. meteor, ital. (2) l s 66 (1879).
Fallen at Naples. Italy, Feb. 25, 1879. Analysis by Scacchi, quoted by Palmeri— Rend. R. Accad. sci. fla.
Naples (3) 7: 161 (1901).
Fallen on Elba, Feb. 25, 1879. Roster— l'Orosi 8: 75 (1885).
Fallen at Flume, Hungary, March 10, 1901 . Hellmann and Meinardus— Der grosse Staubfallj). 69 (1901).
Fallen at Florence, Italy, March 10, 1901. Passerlni— Atti R. Accad. econ.-agr. Georg. Florence (4)
24: 142 (1901).
Fallen in the Klausthal. Germany, March 19, 1901. Hampe— Naturw. Runds. 18t 285-287 (1898).
Two samples of that fallen at Swansea, England, Feb. 22, 1903. Flett— Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soo.
80: 77 (1904).
Fallen at Buckfastleigh, England, Feb. 22, 1903. Earp— Nature 87: 415 (1903).
Further analyses not included in Tables V and VI are given by Palmeri and by Macagno and Tacchini
(loci ci tat 1) and by the following: Doberetner— Jour. Chem. Physlk(Schwelgger)9: 222(1813); Sementini—
Olorn. fls. chim. stor. nat. (2) 1: 28-32 (1818): Canobblo— Compt. rend. 13: 215 (1841); Dufrenoy— Compt.
rend. 18: 580-584 (1842); Ehrenberg— Passatstaub und Blutregen, p. 47 (1849); Bouis— Compt. rend. 56:
974 (1863); Silvestri— Ann. sci. ind. 6, I: 107-108 (1869), quoted by Tarry— Compt. rend. 70: 1371 (1870);
Nicatl— Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. 10: 285 (1869); Camerlander— Jahrb. geol. Relchsanst. 88: 293 (1888);
NordensklCld— Met. Zs. 11: 216-217 (1894); von John— Verh. geol. Relchsanst. 1896: 259; Ilampe—
Naturw. Runds. 13: 285-287 (1898); Dinklage— Annalen Hydrog. 26: 254 (1898); Clerici— Boll. Soo.
feol. ital. 20: olxix-olxxviii (1901). 21: xxix note (1902); Bared -Verh naturf. Ver. Brttnn 40: 48-54
1901); Svoboda— Zs. landw. Versuchsw. Oest. 4: 630-631 (1901); Meunier— Compt. rend. 132: 895 (1901);
ppen— Centbl. Min. 1901: 581; Forel— Verh. Schwelz. naturf. Qes. Aarau 8ft: 63 (1902); Prometheus
16: 254 (1905). Qualitative analyses (lacking quantitative data) have been published by Fabronl— Ann.
chim. phys. 88: 146-152 (1813); Max. Schuster- Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wlss. Vienna 93: 87-104 (1886);
Bdhm— Met. Zs. 18: 278-279 (1901); Walt her— Naturw. Wochens. 18: 603 (1903): Herrmann (analysis by
Lam)— Annalen Hydrog. 81: 477 (1903); and E. O. Clayton— Proc. Chem. soc. London 19: 101-103
(1903).
The argument of Ehrenberg ° that the sirocco dust can not be from
the Sahara because it is red, whereas the desert sands are white, loses
its force in the light of what was said on page 37 concerning deflation
a Passatstaub und Blutregen, p. 30 (1849).
96 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
from deserts. The sands contain no dust, because all dust has been
blown away, and similarly they are white because the red and yellow
material has likewise been removed by the wind. The reddish min-
erals are mainly hydrated iron compounds derived from the weather-
ing of ferro-magnesian minerals and are therefore very susceptible
to fine division and sequent removal by the wind. Walther ° has
observed that the dust carried by temporary rills of water in the
desert is red, 6 and the dust, the analysis of which is given as No. 8 in
Table V, was reddish yellow.
But the most conclusive evidence regarding the Saharan origin of
the sirocco dust is derived from meteorological sources. It has been
found possible by the use of barometric data to map the path of
several of the dust-bearing storms and trace them back to a point of
origin in northern Africa. This was attempted in a rough way by
Tarry c for the storms of March 10, 1869, and February 13, 1870, but
his results were incomplete and somewhat open to question .d The
storms of March 9 to 11, 1901, and of February 22 to 23, 1903, have,
however, been conclusively traced to the Sahara/ These conclu-
sions are confirmed by the observation ' that dust falls are usually
accompanied by winds drier and hotter than are normal in European
Idealities, thus suggesting their origin in the warmer regions to the
south. It seems as well that there is a tendency for dust falls to
occur most frequently in those years when the Sahara is driest.? As
a result of the cumulative force of the facts above outlined the
Saharan origin of the sirocco dust is now generally regarded as beyond
question.*
<* Denudation in der Wttste, p. 494 (1891). There is a reddish loessial deposit
near Biskra (Grand — Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 115: 545 [1906]).
& The same observation has been made several times by the present writer in the
deserts of North America.
cCompt. rend. 70: 1043-1046, 1369-1372 (1870).
<*For a criticism see Camerlander — Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 38: 309 (1888).
« On the storm of March, 1901, see Hcllmann and Meinardus — Der grosse Staubfall,
p. 32 et seq. (1901); Kdppen— Annalen Hydrog. 31 : 45-48 (1903); and Krebs— Frank-
fovter Zeitung, March 18, 1901, abstracted in Globus 84: 182 (1903). On the storm
of February, 1903, see Schiefer— Wetter 20: 259-261 (1903); Vanderlinden—
Ciel et terre 24: 49-59 (1903); and Mill and Lempfert— Quart, jour. Roy. meteor.
Soc. 30: 57-91(1904).
/ Mill and Lempfert — loc. cit. in last note; Tacchini — Ann. meteor, ital. (2) li
81-88 (1879); Forel— Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. (4) 39: xxvii (1903).
9 Erebs (Globus 84 : 183-184 [1903]) has made comparisons from 1782 to 1898, which
seem to bear this out. His dates for dry years in the Sahara are calculated from the
data of Bruckner (Klima-Schwankungen seit 1700 [1890]).
* A r&ume' of considerations leading to this conclusion is given by Hellmann and
Meinardus— Der grosse Staubfall, pp. 79-81, 89-92 (1901). See also, in addition to
the authorities already cited: Denza — Ann. sci. ind. 7, II: 640-648 (1870); Roster —
TOrosi 8: 76 (1885); Fruh— Met. Zs. 20: 175 (1903); and Forel— Compt. rend.
136: 636-637 (1903), Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. (4) 39: xxxiv-xxxv (1903).
QUANTITY OF DUST DEPOSITED IN ETJBOPE.
97
QUANTITY OP DUST DEPOSITED IN EUROPE.
The quantity of dust which fell on March 9 to 12, 1901, was meas-
ured at various places in Europe, and the measurements have been
collected by Hellmann and Meinardus. They range from 1 1 .23 grams
to 1 gram per square meter (31.1 tons to 2.9 tons per square mile), the
values being largest in southern Europe and decreasing toward the
north. Some measurements which have been made on other falls are
given in Table VII.
Table VII. — Quantity of dust deposited on unit area in various European dust falls.
Date.
Oct. 16,1846 a.
Mar. 31.1847&.
1859 c.
Feb., 18f.2c...
Mar. 24, 1869 c.
Mar. 19, 1901 d.
Place.
Southeastern France.
Tyrol
Westphalia
Salzburg, Austria . . . .
Camiola, Austria. . . .
Taormlna, Sicily
Weight of dust.
Grams per
square
meter.
0.63
2.0
30.0
.08
5.0
2.7
Tons per
square.
mile.
1.8
6.7
85.8
.24
14.8
7.7
• Chauveau — Ann. 8oc. meteor. France 51 : 72 (1903). The quantity of this fall as measured at Valence.
France, is given by Ehrenberg (Passatstaub und Blutregen, p. 42) as 0.75 gram per square meter, or 2.1
tonsper square mile.
6 Ehrenberg— Passatstaub und Blutregen, p. 26. Given as 103 grams per square fathom.
« Chauveau— loc. cit. in note » above.
d Rucker— Nature 63: 514 (1901), 64: 30 (1901). Three determinations were made and gave 1.5, 2.6,
and 3.5 grams per square meter, respectively. Weighting the determinations according to the probable
accuracy of each, 2.7 grams per square meter was obtained as a probably true average.
The areas covered by the different falls vary widely. Falls occur
occasionally in nearly every part of Europe, but it is seldom that
the whole of the continent is affected by any one storm. The fall of
March 9 to 12, 1901, however, was observed practically all over
Europe. 6 The area covered is given by Hellmann and Meinardus as
at least 300,000 square miles of land surface and 170,000 square miles
of oc^an. The fall of February 22, 1903, covered an area nearly as
large. c The amounts of dust actually brought into Europe by the
various falls are difficult to determine on account of "the meager data
available, both as to area covered and amount of deposited dust per
unit area. The latter figure is also liable to much variation from place
to place. A few estimates are found in the literature and are given
in Table VIII.
* o Der grosse Staubfall, p. 30-31 (1901). Palmeri (Rend. R. Accad. sci. fis. Naples
(3) 7: 155 [1901]) gives two determinations of the quantity of the fall at Naples which
are not quoted by Hellmann and Meinardus. They are 9.3 and 10.3 grams per square
meter. The value given by Hellmann and Meinardus for Naples is 11 grams per square
meter. Palmeri's values are probably the more accurate.
ft See authorities cited on p. 89.
« See authorities cited on p. 90. This fall was observed in England more widely
fhun any other. The 'area affected in that country is given by Mill and Lempfert
Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 30: 57 [1904]) as 20,000 square milea.
63952°— Bull. 68—11 7
98
MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Table VIII. — Total quantities of dust deposited in Europe by various falls.
Date.
I8fi0«
18836
1864*
February, 1888'..
March &-12, 1901 «.
Do.*.
Do.«
February 22, 1903 /. .
Location.
Westphalia
Canary Islands
Silesia
Silesia and environs
Europe
North Africa (approximated)
Total.
England...
Kilograms.
1,200,000,000
6,900,000,000
400,000,000
12,852,000
1,782,200,000
1,600,000,000
3,282,200,000
9,100,000,000
Tom.
1,325,000
6,600,000
440,000
14,147
1,960,420
1,650,000
8,610,420
10,000,000
•Chauveau— Ann. Soc. mlteor. France 51 1 72 {1903).
b von Fritsch— Allgemeine Geologic, n. 212 <1888). The quantity is given as 3,944,000 cubic meters.
erase speci
true specific gravity of tne dust material Is about 2.5. See Macagno and Taochini— Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1 :
In changing this to kilograms I have
fall, p. 31) for the ave
iflc gravity
ie, p. 21 z <1888). rne quantity is given as 3.944,000 cubic meters,
used the value given by Hellmann and Melnaraus (Der grosse Staub-
kvity of siroooo dust, namely, 1.5. This allows for entangled air. The
66 (1879); and Silvestri— Atti Acead. Gioenia Catania (3) 19: 133 (1878).
eCohn— Abh. Schles. Qei. vaterl. Kultur 1864 1 31-50.
4 Camerlander— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 3S: 304 (1888). This value is intended as a minimum estimate.
grosse Staubfall, p.
/Mill and Lempfert— Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 80 1 57(1904). This estimate is admittedly based
• Hellmann and Meinardus— Der
31 (1901).
*or. soc. ;
on Insufficient data and is probably too high.
Of these, only that of Hellmann and Meinardus for the fall of
March 9 to 12, 1901, can claim any degree of accuracy. It is based
upon a number of observations of the amount of dust per unit area,
and the calculations of areas covered, etc., were made with care. The
other estimates depend upon such inadequate data that they can
scarcely be considered more than guesses. In spite of this unsafe-
factory nature of the estimates it is apparent that the total quantity
of sirocco dust which falls in Europe is quite large. From the figures
of Hellmann and Meinardus, the European area covered by the fall
of March 9 to 12, 1901, is seen to be 437,500 square kilometers
(168,437 square miles), while the amount of this fall was 1,782,200,000
kilograms. 6 The average fall on this occasion was therefore 4,780
kilograms per square kilometer, or 4.78 grams per square meter
(12.3 tons per square mile). At a specific gravity of 2.0 C this would
give 2,390 cubic centimeters of dust per square meter of surface, or
a layer 0.239 mm. thick. And if a storm as violent as that of March,
1901, be assumed to occur once in five years, or if the total dust ac-
cumulation from the less violent storms during five years' time be
assumed equal to that carried by the storm of March, d 1901, there
a Der grosse Staubfall, p. 31 (1901).
©Table VIII.
cThe specific gravity is taken higher in this case than in Table VIII, because we are
hwe dealing with the rate of growth of the soil by the addition of dust, and on becoming
a part of the soil the dust loses much of the pore space which it possesses when freshly
(alien and in a loose, unpacked condition. It is still necessary, however, to take a
specific gravity lower than that of the actual material of the dust, because the soil
itself is to a certain degree loose and porous; 2.0 seems a fair average value.
d This does not seem excessive in view of the fact that there have occurred since
1900 two storms (March, 1901, and February, 1903) each of which produced a deposit
of probably about the amount given. The other less extensive storms (of which some
ten or twelve are recorded in this period) would probably bring the total quantity
deposited since 1900 up to two or three times the assumed value. Accurate data are
lacking for the years previous to 1900, but there is no reason to think that the average
deposit was greatly less than at present.
THE CONTINUAL DRIFT OF BOIL MATERIAL WITH THE WIND. 99
will be 0.239 mm. of dust deposited every five years, or 4.78 mm. per
century, and in the three thousand odd years during which we have
authentic historic evidence for the occurrence of these storms there
will have been added to the soil in the regions affected 143.4 mm.,
or over 5} inches, of material from the desert. This estimate will
be much too low for Italy, southern France, and the Tyrol, because
the storms are there more frequent than assumed, and the amount of
dust deposited by each storm is greater. On the other hand, the
estimate is probably too high for England and northern Germany.
It does not follow that the surface of southern Europe has actu-
ally been raised 5} inches in the last thirty centuries, or that its soil
now contains a quantity of desert dust which would, if collected, pro-
duce a layer of that thickness. The processes of soil loss and decay
affect the wind-deposited material as well as that from other sources,
and it, like everything else in the soil, is continually being both sup-
plied and removed. The important point is that wind-borne material
is being supplied to the soil of southern Europe at a rate which is
geologically quite rapid. This conclusion is confirmed by the geologic
evidence of the removal of thick strata which must once have covered
the Sahara. There is no reason to believe that physiographic con-
ditions in the Sahara have been during recent geologic time essentially
different from those at present existing, and the degradation of
this area must therefore be ascribed almost entirely to deflation. 6
Of course, not all of the dust has been deposited in Europe. Most of
it has fallen in Africa itself A in Asia Minor, and in the Mediterranean
Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
THE CONTINUAL DBIFT OF SOIL HATBBIAL WITH THE WIND.
The phenomena exhibited by drifting sand and by dust storms
differ only in degree from what is continually taking place everywhere
in the form of the slow and unnoticed drift of soil material backward
and forward by the winds. c It is only under exceptional circum-
stances that the amount of material being so transported at any
one instant becomes great enough to be perceptible to the senses,
but there are many evidences that much unnoticed transport does
exist, and that over considerable periods of time its results exceed
in importance those of the more spectacular manifestations of the
same action. Dust storms are paroxysms. They form the intensive
phase, the continual drift the extensive one, of the phenomena. It is
the continually drifted material which forms the transient part of
the dust of the atmosphere— transient because it remains in sus-
pension only under the action of the wind and sinks more or less
rapidly when the wind fails.
a This question is fully discussed by Walther— Wustenbildung, Chapter I (1900).
ft Zittel opposes this conclusion (Geol. Bau libyBchen Wuste, p. 18 [1880])*
cQt. Menzel— Kosmos 2: 237-239 (1905).
100 MOVEMENT 0# SOIL MATEBIAL BY THE WIND,
ACCUMULATIONS OF DUST.
The measurement of the amount of this drifting soil while it is
actually in transport is almost impossible, and the evidence of the
existence of the action is dependent on more or less indirect data, an
important item of which is the well-known fact that dust rapidly
accumulates in all places where it can remain undisturbed. This
does not mean that dust reaches only protected places, but that it is
only there that it can accumulate in sufficient quantity to become
perceptible. Also the dust which falls on the soil is immediately
incorporated therewith, and unless in some way very different from
the soil material can not be distinguished from it, while dust which
settles in houses, etc., at once becomes noticeable on account of its
contrast with its environment. Just as much or more dust settles in
the fields, but it belongs there and is unnoticed. When because of
difference of color between the dust and the soil (as, for example, in
the case of sirocco dust),° the presence of snow on the ground, or
similar reasons, the field dust becomes perceptible, its amount is seen
to be considerable.
The presence of dust in places where it can be seen is too familiar
to need any pf oof . The floors of unused rooms are soon dust-covered
and deposits inches deep will accumulate in time. The beams under
the roofs of barns and similar partially open buildings gather thick
deposits on their upper surfaces. None of these places is particu-
larly easy of access to the dust, and probably much more dust is
deposited in the open fields, where every wind has full play. It may
be argued that in the open fields the dust is not deposited but kept
in motion, and that deposits in houses, etc., are really made because
the wind does not have full sweep and is compelled to drop its load.
To a certain extent this is true, but the vegetation of the open country
forms, as already explained, an entanglement which must cause the
progressive deposition of much of the atmospheric load. There are,
of course, places in the open fields where dust will not be dropped, or
will not remain if dropped; more than this, there are places where
dust is removed (for if there were not, whence would come the dust ?),
but there are many other places where deposit is going on much more
rapidly than indoors. That the respective locations of these areas
of erosion and deposition change from year to year with changes in
vegetation, wind, etc. — that any particular field is being eroded this
month and receiving deposits next month — does not at all weaken the
conclusion that dust is probably being deposited (and removed) more
rapidly in the open than in places where its presence is immediately
perceptible.
• Another case (cement dust) is cited by Peirce— Science (n. a.) 30: 652 (1909).
ACCUMULATIONS OP DUST. 101
Id Edinburgh, in 1902, Black made some measurements of the
amount of dust deposited in an open rain gauge having a funnel 6
inches in diameter, and found it to vary between 25 and 160 grains
(1.62 to 10.37 grams) per month. Disregarding the values for cer-
tain months when much dust was raised by building operations nearby,
the maximum value is 80 grains (5.18 grams). The average for the
eight months, the values for which are believed to be trustworthy, is
42.3 grains (2.74 grams) per month, or 1.16 ounces (32.89 grams per
year). This was over an area of 28.27 square inches (circle 6 inches
in diameter), and amounts to 150 grams per square meter per month,
or 1.8 kilograms per square meter (5,157 tons per square mile) per
year. At a specific gravity of 2.0 this equals a layer about 0.04
centimeter (about 0.16 inch) thick deposited in one year. Some
other determinations made at the same time and place gave, for the
dust deposited in an open dish, 3.8 ounces per square foot (1,159
grams per square meter, or 3,315 tons per square mile) per year. The
amount deposited in an open dish is naturally less than the deposit
in a rain gauge, as the latter is much better fitted to entrap and retain
the dust. Of course these figures are of no great quantitative value,
as there is no assurance that the dust collected was composed of soil
materials. However, Edinburgh is not a smoky city, and it is proba-
ble that at least a large part of the dust was drifting soil. 6 Black
gives no data as to its composition, but he speaks of it as ''sand/'
which would indicate that he considered it mineral in nature.
Professor Fry, in Cincinnati, has made some similar experiments on
the amount of dust collected in buckets kept partly full of water and
placed on the roofs of various buildings. 6 The dust was filtered off,
extracted with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and weighed. The
amount deposited at the various stations during July, August, and
September, 1906, varied from 0.464 gram to 22.550 grams per square
foot, with an average of 5.6 grams per square foot (60.28 grams per
square meter) per month, or 723 grams per square meter (2,062 tons
per square mile) per year. The months during which observations
were made are the clearest of the year in Cincinnati, and the esti-
mates given are probably lower than the yearly average. The mate-
rial collected was carbonaceous and ashy, and appeared to be largely
« Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 29? 134 (1903). For a brief notice of similar
measurements in 1903 (less accurate because of building operations near by), see
Symons's meteor, mag. 39: 29 (1904).
# For data as to the composition of city dusts, etc., see p. 104.
« This work was done for the Smoke Abatement League, of Hamilton County, Ohio,
and was reported at a meeting of the Cincinnati Section of the American Chemical
Society, on October 17, 1906. A short abstract was published in the Announcement
of the Section for 1907, pp. 18-19. I am indebted to Professor Fry for kindly sending
me a fuller report of the work than is given in this abstract.
102 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
derived from coal smoke. No attempt was made to determine the
amount of soil material which it contained.
The presence of much drifting soil in open fields has been shown
by Emeia,* who collected the soil in a glass of water exposed on top
of a low wall. He made no quantitative measurements. AUuard*
measured the amount of blown soil (mostly volcanic dust from
neighboring deposits) which collected in the cistern fed by the rain
water from the roof of the observatory at Puy-de-D6me, France.
He obtained 73 grams per square meter of roof surface during two
and a half months. His estimate of the yearly average was 100
grams per square meter.
The presence of snow on the ground furnishes an indicator for the
dust, and the dirty appearance of snow a few days old is familiar to
all. This is especially noticeable when the snow has partially melted
and the dust has thereby become concentrated in the residue. The
last remnants of a snowdrift are always much discolored. Observa-
tions on the presence of soil dust in snow have been made in Switzer-
land by Fischer ; c in Germany by Fldgel, d Chelius/ and Emeis;' in
England by Preece' and Irwin;* and in Canada by Rae;' and the
deposition of dust with drifting snow has even been suggested as a
source of the loess.' During the winter of 1887-88 in central and
northern Saxony so much dust was moved by the wind that layers 2,
3, and even 4 centimeters thick were found covering the snowdrifts
in exposed locations.* On this dust layer being covered by a second
snowfall the dust deposition was repeated and there was thus pro-
duced a considerable thickness of interstratified layers of dust and
snow. It is possible that the strata of ice in the high latitude tun-
dras may have originated in a similar way, having been once on the
surface and covered with soil transported by wind and water. 1 In
oAllg. FoistJagdztg. 78: 403 (1902).
ftCompt. rend. 100: 1081-1083 (1885).
cMitth. naturf. Gee. Bern 1867: 210-213.
*&. Met. 16: 324(1881).
« Neu<* Jahrb. Min. 1892, 1: 226.
/Allg. Font- Jagdztg. 78: 403-414 (1902). See also von Lasaulx— Encyclop. der
Naturw., Abt. II 1 : 74 (1882); and note in Nature 27: 496 (1883).
9 Nature 28 : 336-337 (1881).
A Jour. Soc. chem. ind. 21: 533 (1902).
< Nature 83 : 244-245 (1886).
1 Daviaon— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 50 : 472-487 (1894). This article contains much
information on the collection of dust in snowdrifts. On the movement of dust with
the great snow storms of the steppes, see Nehring— Tundren und Steppen, pp. 44-45
(1890).
* Bauer and Biegert—Ze. deut. geol. Gee. 40: 576-582 (1888).
I See Leffingwell— Jour. geol. 16 : 56-63 (1908). For alternative explanations see
Tyrrell— Jour. geol. 12: 232-236 (1904); and Stettnason— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 42 1
337-345 (1910).
ACCtrMTOjATIONS OP DUST. 103
January, 1901, there was blown onto the ice-covered surface of Lake
Muritz (northwest of Berlin) a sheet of dust from 0.1 to 0.2 milli-
meter thick and extending about 5 kilometers from the east bank. a
The total quantity deposited was estimated as at least 5,000 cubic
meters. If such quantities of dust are collected in so short a time,
and if enough dust to be easily perceptible is gathered everywhere
by a comparatively transient snow covering, it is apparent that the
aggregate amount of blown dust must be very large, and especially
is this conclusion inevitable when it is remembered that these indi-
cations' are all observed durirg the season when most of the soil
surface is frozen or ice covered and thereby protected from wind
action. It seems probable that much larger quantities of dust are
moved during the summer, though the absence of any indicator such
as the snow prevents its presence being noticed.
Even in regions of perpetual snow in the arctics and on high
mountains, dust is found in and on the snow and ice, 6 and N. A. E.
Nordenskiold c found on the ice of Greenland a deposit which he
thought to be a new mineral species, and named cryokonite. He
supposed it to be of extraterrestrial origin. It has since been shown
by Hoist* and von Lasaulx' that this material is a mixture of
ordinary minerals/ and has undoubtedly been derived from the
a Peltz— Archiv Ver. Naturg. Mecklenburg 55: 180 (1901).
* On the occurrence of mineral dust in arctic snow and ice see W. E. Parry— Jour-
nal of a third voyage for the discovery of a Northwest Passage, pp. 23, 104, 155 (1826);
McClure — The discovery of the Northwest Passage by H. M. S. "Investigator" 2ded.
(Osborn), pp. 193, 229 (1857); M' Clin tock— The voyage of the "Fox" in Arctic seas,
p. 146 (1859); Koldewey— The German Arctic expedition of 1869-70, English ed. of
1874, p. 120; Flight— Geol. mag. n. s. 2: 157-159 (1875); Nares— Narrative of a voy-
age to the Polar sea, vol. 1, pp. 149, 168-169, vol. 2, pp. 12, 59, 61 (1878); Jensen—
Peterm. Mitth. 26: 103 (1880); Carstensen— Globus 47: 154 (1885); Greely— Three
years of Arctic service, vol. 1, pp. 312, 398-399, vol. 2, pp. 30-31 (1886); Kindle—
Amer. jour. sci. (4) 28: 175-179 (1909). Terrestrial dust has similarly been ob-
served in the snow on the Himalaya Mountains (altitudes up to 14,700 feet). See
Arthur Schuster— Rept. Brit, assoc. 1883: 12&-127; Tanner— Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.
(n. b.) 13: 411 (1891); and Oldham— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 50: 486 (1894).
c Ofvers. K. Vet.-akad. f6rh. 31 : 3-12 (1874) ; Voyage of the Vega, vol. 1, pp. 327-331
(1881).
4 Sveriges geol. undenSkning ser. C, No. 81, 1886.
• Tschermak'smin.Mitt. (n.s.) 3: 519-526 (1880). On cryokonite see also Wolfing—
Neues Jahrb. Min. Beilagebd. 7: 152-174 (1890).
/ Quartz, mica, orthoclase, plagioclase, magnetite, garnet, eptdote, hornblende, etc.,
mainly quartz. The chemical composition of an air-dried sample was as follows:
8iOt .' 62.25
AUOi 14.93
FeiOi 74
FeO 4.64
MnO 07
CaO 5.09
MgO 3.00
KiO 2.02
Analysis by Lindstrdm, quoted by von Lasaulx, loc. cit. See also Nordenskidld —
Met. Zb. 11 : 215 (1894), where this and other analyses (also by Lindstrdm) are quoted
Na«o 4.01
PiOi n
Cl 08
Hygroscopic water 34
Loss on Ignition 2. 86
100.12
104 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
rocks of the coast and other exposed places, and blown by the wind
to the surface of the ice fields.
It may be argued that the house dust, etc., is not soil material,
but organic remains, soot, ashes, rust, etc. However, all examina-
tions of blown dust have shown the presence therein of the ordinary
soil minerals in addition to various matters of animal, vegetable, and
industrial origin. For instance, dust collected from the roof of the
National Museum at Melbourne, Australia, was largely mineral and
contained quartz, augite, tourmaline, olivine, zircon, feldspar (ortho-
clase, albite, labradorite, etc.), epidote, magnetite, limonite, zoisite,
and calcite. Dust deposited on the frozen surface of one of the
lakes at Madison, Wis., by the dust storm of February, 1896, was
examined by Prof. W. H. Hobbs and found to be composed of the
ordinary minerals of granitic rocks. b Dust collected from the snow
north of Kiel, Germany, contained quartz, feldspars, mica, horn-
blende, and clayey substances. c Dust from the top of the tower of
the cathedral at Nancy contained quartz, feldspars, micas, pyroxene,
tourmaline, rutile, enstatite, peridot, zircon, corundum, hematite,
calcite, and clay. d Similar dusts deposited by Australian* and
Russian f dust storms, collected from snow at Madrid,* at the top
of Ben Nevis, Scotland,* at Trondhjem, Norway/ in eastern Sweden,'
etc., possess a like composition.* It is true that in cities, and especi-
ally near manufacturing centers, much dust is discharged into the
air by various industrial enterprises/ and the dust of cities is likely
to contain a smaller percentage of soil material than dust collected
in less crowded regions. Nevertheless, the dust of New York City
was found to contain much quartz and numerous fragments of
other minerals,* 1 and dust collected in Berlin was found to be
largely mineral . n
« Chapman and Grayson— Vict. nat. 20: 30 (1903).
& Observation published only in the daily press. For the information given and
for a sample of the dust I am indebted to Prof. J. A. Jeffery, now of the Michigan
Agricultural College, who collected the dust.
c von Lasaulx— Tschermak's min. Mitt. (n. b.) 3: 529 (1880).
<* Thoulet— Compt. rend. 146: 1347 (1908), 150: 947-949 (1910).
«L. Hart — Austr. photog. rev. 1897: 9; Chapman and Grayson — loc. cit.; Liver-
Bidge— Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. N. S. Wales 36: 242 et seq. (1902).
/ KlossovskH— Bull. Soc. beige, geol. 8, Proc. verb.: 239-240 (1895).
Macpherson— Nature 29 : 224 (1884). Cf . also ibid., p. 174.
A Murray and Renard— Nature 29: 590 (1884).
* Reusch— Nature 27 : 496 (1883).
I Hildebrandson, quoted by N. A. E. NordenskiSld — Geol. mag. (2) 3: 295 (1876).
See also NordenskiSld— Geol. fflren. ferh. 14: 377 (1892), 15: 417-459 (1893).
* For examination of various dusts and soots see Hartley and Ramage — Proc. Roy.
roc. 68: 97-109 (1901). Cf. also Fl6gel— Zs. Met. 16: 324 (1881).
J See Leymann — Die Verunreinigung der Luft durch gewerbliche Betriebe, Handb.
der Hygiene, Suppl. bd. 3, pp. 27-126 (1903).
wEgleston — Trans. Amer. soc. civ. eng. 15: 656 (1886).
» Himmel und Erde 18 : 279-282 (1906).
ACCUMULATIONS OF DUST. 105
So largely is ordinary dust made up of soil material that its color
and other properties are determined by the nature of the prevailing
soil, or at least of that part of the soil which is fine enough to be moved
by the wind. The "alkali" dust of the western United States is
white, the dust of laterite regions is reddish, etc.
The dust which accumulates where it can be recognized as wind-
borne is usually removed, naturally or artificially, practically as fast
as it gathers ; and accumulations on the soil itself can not be recognized
as differing from local soil materials. Sometimes, however, eolian
dusts can be identified, as, for instance, the fine white powder found
by Gilbert 6 in cavities in the cindery lava of the Lake Bonneville
district, or the black or reddish clayey dust found by Foureau in
sheltered rock cavities in the northern Sahara. 6 The writer has found
similar dust (or rather very fine sand) in cavities in the tufa of Rattle-
snake Butte, near Fallon, Nev. The natives of central Australia find
sand in birds' nests in trees high above the ground.* It is said that
the bark of trees growing east of the Columbia River in southeast
Washington is so full of blown sand as to dull saws used to cut them.
Raulin,' in 1845, found on the tops of the high mountains of Crete
pockets of soil which he believed to have been deposited by the wind.
Similar occurrences have been observed on Mount Monadnock, in New
Hampshire/ Reid ° cites several instances of wind-deposited material
om chalk cliffs and sand hills in England. A. D. Hall* mentions the
growth of soil on shingle recently won from the sea; and Kinahan *
describes a similar deposit on a surface of bog-iron ore — wind action
being responsible in both cases. There is always a possibility (though
usually a slight one) that these deposits may have been derived from
the decay of the rock (rain wash is excluded by the location), but this
can not be the case with the pockets of soil frequently found on tops
of buildings/ Dirt tends to collect in low spots on the roof, and
especially to be washed into rain spouts, necessitating occasional
cleaning. It can have gotten there only by wind-drift from the
*
* See Walther — Einleitung in der Geologic als historische Wissenschaft, p. 810
(1894).
b Lake Bonneville, U. S. geol. surv. Monogr. 1: 325 (1890).
« Documents scientifiques mission saharienne, vol. 1, p. 234 (1904). For a similar
observation in the Salton Basin, see Tol man— Jour. geol. 17: 156 (1909).
d J. W. Gregory— Dead heart of Australia, p. 233 (1906).
« Bull. Soc. geol. France (2) 15 : 139 (1857). Cf . the observations of Virlet d'Aoust
and of Stur, cited on p. 140 below.
/ Unpublished observation of Mr. W. O. Robinson, of this bureau. For further
notice of this soil, see p. 162.
9 Geol. mag. (3) 1 : 166, 168 (1884).
* The soil, p. 10 (19C3).
<Geol. Mag. 6: 267(1869).
J Reid — GfloJ. mag. (3) 1: 167 (1884); Richthofen, in Neumayer— Anleit. wiss.
Beob. auf Retsen, 2d ed., vol. 1, p, 254 (1888).
106 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
ground below, and that it contains the soil minerals is shown by the
not infrequent occurrence in it of growing plants, sprung from seeds
likewise blown in by the wind or carried by birds.
The deposition of blown soils on a large scale is discussed below
under the head of eolian geologic formations.
ADMIXTURE OF LOCAL MATERIAL IN DUST FALLS.
Additional evidence of the constant presence of soil material in the
atmosphere is found in the fact that nearly every fall of volcanic ash,
sirocco dust, etc., which has been examined has been found to contain
material of local origin. Only the dust collected on shipboard is free
from contamination of this sort. 6 This constant local admixture has
been observed in atmospheric dusts in general by von Lasaiilx* and
Black; 4 * in sirocco dust by Cohn,« Max. Schuster/ von John,*
Klein,* Becke,' Fruh,' Mill and Lempfert,* Krebs, 1 Prinz,* 1 Macagno
and Tacchini," and others; in Australian blown dust by Steel; in
Krakatoa ashes by Judd,? etc. The amount of local material is fre-
quently great enough to change the properties of the fallen dust and
prevent its accurate analysis.* It has been suggested by Klein r that
the local mineral matter in air dusts may have an industrial origin,
being derived from impurities in the coal burned in furnaces, but it
seems more likely that much of it, at least, is derived from the soil
itself.
NATURAL BURIAL OF ARTICLES IN THE SOIL.
It is well known that stones and similar articles left lying on the
ground gradually disappear beneath the surface, and that the soil
a Of course, when the fall is too heavy the presence of local material is obscured.
b See Herrmann— Annalen Hydrog. 31: 478-479 (1903).
c Tschermak's min. Mitt. (n. s.) 3: 530 (1880).
d Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 29: 134 (1903).
< Abh. Schles. Gee. vaterl. Kultur 1864 : 31-50.
/Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wise. Vienna 93: 105-116 (1886).
Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1896: 259.
* Sitzungsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wise. Berlin 1901 : 612 et seq.
i Anz. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 38: 107-109 (1901).
iMet. Zs. 20: 175(1903).
* Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 30: 76 et seq. (1904).
* Globus 84 * 184(1903).
« Ciel et terre 24 : 25, 75, 81 (1903).
» Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1 : 70 (1879).
o Rept. Austr. assoc. adv. sci. 7 : 334-335 (1898). See also Liveraidge— Jour. Proc.
Roy. soc. New South Wales 36: 258 et seq. (1902).
V Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, p. 41 (1888).
Cf. p. 94 above, and see also Mill and Lempfert— loc. cit., in note k above.
Sirocco dust is sometimes greatly changed in color by local admixture. See Hellmann
and Meinardus— Der grosse Staubfall, p. 90 (1901), and Ditte—Ciel et terre 25: 502
(1904).
r Sitzungsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1901 x 612 et seq.
NATURAL BURIAL, OF ARTICLES IN THE SOIL. 107
similarly tends to "creep up" about walls, fences, etc. Even more
striking is the fact that a layer of ashes, lime, etc., if spread on a field
will gradually sink as a layer y and may be found years later as a dis-
tinct stratum a few inches below the surface. Many examples of
these phenomena are cited by Darwin.* The relics of ancient
civilizations, as, for instance, arrowheads in America, coins and
medals in Europe, etc., are always found beneath the surface. It is
extremely unlikely that all of these objects were originally buried by
man, and it is therefore necessary to ascribe their present position to
the action of some natural agency which causes the covering of objects
left on the surface, 6 and which acts with considerable rapidity, only a
few years being required for burial to be effected. The dfibris left on
the battlefields of the civil war has already entirely disappeared, and
that it has actually "sunk" and not been artificially removed is
proven by the frequency with which swords, belt buckles, and other
articles are unearthed by cultivators of fields which vere once the
scene of battles.
This process of natural burial was ascribed by Darwin e to the
action of earthworms, and by Kinahan d to the accumulation of the
products of vegetable decay. It is probably in part due to rain wash
and in part to the deposit of blown dust/ and perhaps in part also to
the mutual movements of the soil particles, as described on page 16.'
This last factor can never be more than a minor one, but the deter-
mination of the relative importance of the others is very difficult.
There is no doubt that each is of predominant importance in certain
cases, and that all are of some effect in all cases. As a generally pre-
dominant factor, the accumulation of vegetable remains, as suggested
by Kinahan, may be at once rejected, since the material which is
found to cover the buried articles is largely mineral, being simply
ordinary soil. The importance of rain wash can usually be deter-
mined from the topography of the country, and there are many cases
« Formation of vegetable mould, chap. 3 (1881). See also Kinahan — Geol. mag. 6 :
109-115, 263-268, 34S-351 (1869); Key—Nature 17: 28 (1877); Dancer— Proc. Phil,
roc. Manchester 16: 247 (1877); and Urquhart— Nature 27: 91 (1882).
ft Of course there are places where the erosive agencies of wind and water are so
active that bodies do not sink below the surface because the surface soil itself is too
rapidly removed. On such areas stones do not tend to disappear, but to appear (from
below), and of all crops that of the stones is the largest. The stony hillside fields of
New England belong to this class. Similarly, in arid regions there is formed a ' ' desert
pavement," as already described.
eProc. Geol. soc. London 2: 574-676 (1838); Trans. Geol. soc. London (2) 5:
605-509 (1840); Formation of vegetable mould, 1881.
d Geol. mag. 6: 263-268, 348-351 (1869).
« For suggestions to this effect, see Rafinesque — Amer. Jour. Sci. 1 : 397-400 (1819);
Proctor— Pleasant ways in science, p. 379 (1878); Richthofen— Verh. geol. Reichsanst.
1878: 296; and Hughes— Nature 30: 57 (1884).
/ For instance, see Scott— Nature 78 : 376 (1908).
108 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
where the situation of the field excludes this factor at once. Also
rain wash would not in general produce deposits of uniform thickness,
as seen in the burial of layers of foreign material, as described abov^_
or in the case noted by Kinahan," where the uprights of a long iron
railing were buried to a uniform depth by the up-creep of soil.
It is-more difficult to discriminate between the effects of earthworm. ,
action and of the deposition of blown dust. Each would probably,
produce a deposit of reasonably uniform thickness and each deposit ,
would probably consist of particles of about the same size. A grain
too large to be swallowed by the worm would also be too large to be
moved by the wind, and where numerous larger grains are found in
the surface deposit 6 their presence is probably to be ascribed to
water action. It is possible that a careful mineralogical examination
of the deposit might furnish criteria, at least in some cases. If it
were found to be composed entirely of the material of the subsoil, it
might reasonably be referred to worm action. If, on the other hand,
much foreign material were found to be present, it would be reason-
able proof of the activity of the wind.
It seems at any rate not improbable that the share of the wind in the
formation of "vegetable mould" is far greater than that assigned to it
by Darwin. c Burial by earthworms is in great part a real sinking of the
object due to removal of soil from beneath, and it is difficult to see
how pavements or layers of foreign material could sink in this manner
without more distortion of level than is observed,* and particularly
difficult to imagine a stone wall thus sinking without losing its perpen-
dicular position.' It would seem that in these cases either wind or
rain has been the main agent. The same is true in general of the
burial of ancient buildings in England and elsewhere/ Whether in
general in the open fields more material is deposited by the winds or
by the worms, it is impossible to say. Neither can be neglected as an
active agent.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL DRIFT.
It is apparent from the above that the quantities of soil drifted
back and forth by the wind are considerable, though perhaps not
a Geol. mag. 6: 266 (1869).
b For aninstance, see Darwin — The formation of vegetable mould, N.Y., 1898, p. 225.
c The formation of vegetable mould, N. Y., 1898, note on p. 237.
& Various instances of the discovery of ancient floors, etc., the original level surface
of which was still maintained, are cited by Darwin (The formation of vegetable mould,
N. Y., 1898, chaps. 3 and 4).
t An instance is given by Darwin — loc. cit., p. 227.
/ See Darwin (loc. cit., chap. 4) for many instances. In most of these cases rain has
no doubt been very active. J. E. Lee, however (in his trans, of Keller — Lake dwell-
ings in Switzerland, footnote on p. 367 [1866]), cites a case where rain action was
impossible and where nevertheless Roman remains were found in England 5 to 6 feet
below the surface. A case of the burial of ruins by blown volcanic dust on top of Puy-
de-D6me, France, is cited by Alluard— Compt. rend. 100: 1082 (1886).
THE IMPOBTANCE OF SOIL DRIFT. 109
susceptible to accurate measurement. In spite of the small amounts
of soil which can actually be seen to blow about, it is not difficult,
when the persistence of the action is considered, to believe that the
aggregate amount is very great. One of Darwin's greatest contribu-
tions to scientific thought was his insistancc — in connection with
evolutionary doctrines, the study of coral Islands, and elsewhere — that
effects of great magnitude may be produced as the cumulative result
of very small but frequent secular changes.
As already mentioned, no marked deposits are likely to bo pro-
duced by .soil drift. It is true that certain areas, as indicated in the
last section, are receiving deposits, but this material is derived from
other areas where the protection furnished by vegetation or other
means is less adequate to prevent attack. In fact, the protection is
nowhere sufficient absolutely to prevent attack, and soil drift is always
back and forth, with a tendency for the best protected areas to lose
less than they gain. The sinking of objects into the soil does not
always require the deposit of any great amount of foreign matter.
If the surface soil is continually being shifted by the wind, bodies
which are too heavy to be thus moved will sink through the rest, and
stones, etc., may thus be lowered in absolute position as well as cov-
ered by extraneous material.* This of course can not take place with
the pavements, buildings, etc., mentioned above, and if these are
covered by wind action it must be by virtue of actual deposit on top
of them. The material so gained must naturally be made up by ma-
terial lost from some other area.
To the agriculturist the main importance of this back-and-forth
drift lies in its efficacy in increasing and maintaining the heteroge-
neity of the soil. The instances of its occurrence given above are
merely those in which the action chances to be visible on account of
some special and unusual condition, and there can be no doubt that
most of the soil drift is not observed and not observable. The surface
of every field probably receives material from every field in the neigh-
borhood and from many at a distance, though how much material
is thus received it is impossible to say. It is seldom sufficient to
modify greatly the appearance and general properties of the soil.
Sandy soils remain sandy and clayey ones clayey in spite of wind
drift. It is worth noting, however, that unless either the soil or the
added material were very exceptionally distinctive, 4 or 5 per cent
of blown dust could be present without being detectable by any known
methods of soil examination. The blowing in of distant material
is at least a possible source of supply of minerals in which a particular
soil is naturally deficient, and these minerals do not need to be present
in any large amount to be ample for the needs of the soil. 6
* For an example in the dunes of Sylt, Germany, see Meyn — Abh. geol. Sp.-Karte
Preuss. 1 : 652, 666 (1876).
b See Bull. 30, Bur. of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1906).
110 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
TBT7B ATMOSPHBBJO DUST.
The constant presence of fine dust in the atmosphere is evidenced
by the floating motes which are seen in a beam of light through a dark
room. The dust is of various materials — organic remains, smoke
thrown off by fires and by various industrial operations; mineral
matter from the soil, etc., together with small amounts of material of
volcanic and cosmic origin. By far the larger part is transient and its
discussion belongs to the last chapter, under the head of soil drift,
though the transient part is, of course, not entirely made up of soil
material. Much of the industrial and domestic debris remains in sus-
pension only a short time and does not travel far from its place of
origin. There is, however, in the air some dust which is deposited
only with extreme slowness and which forms the more or less per-
manent part of the atmospheric load. It must not be understood
that particles of this material never settle out of the atmosphere; they
do, and are constantly being replaced by new ones. The perma-
nence of atmospheric dust is a permanence of dust content rather
than of individual particles. Atmospheric dust can perhaps be
roughly defined as the solid material which is normally present in the
atmosphere in distinction to that which belongs to the ground surface
and is only abnormally atmospheric. No sharp or rigid distinctions
or definitions are possible or desirable.
THE PHYSICS OF DUST SUSPENSION.
It is not necessary to revert to hypotheses of mutual electrical
repulsion ° or similar phenomena in order to explain the fact that
dust particles (and also drops of water) remain suspended in the air
for an indefinite period. The simple resistance of the air to the move-
ment of such very minute bodies is amply sufficient to reduce their
rate of fall to the requisite degree. Particles of volcanic ash, organic
matter, etc., fall especially slowly because of their irregular shape,
but even perfect spheres are easily supported if small enough. Fid-
gel 6 has calculated that a sphere of iron 0.018 mm. in diameter would
fall at a maximum rate of 1.69 meters per second. The metallic
spheres actually found in atmospheric dust (see p. 120) are almost
always smaller than this, 6 and would consequently sink with a
a As advocated by Rowell (Rept. Brit. Assoc. 1840: 47; Nature 29: 251 [1884]), and
by Preece (Nature 29: 180 [1883]).
*>Zs. Met. 16:326 (1881). See also Plumandon-— Poussieres atmosphenques,
p. 33 (1897).
c Tissandier found them to vary from 0.01 to 0.001 mm. in diameter (Compt. rend.
78: 823 [1874], 80: 59 [1875]). See also Tacchini— Mem. Soc. spettrosc. ital. 8
Append.: 19-20 (1879); Ditte— Ciel et terre 25: 498 (1904). Tissandier's work on
atmospheric dusts was published in the Compt. rend. 78: 821-824 (1874), 80: 58-61
(1875), 81: 576-579 (1875), 83: 75-78, 1184-1186 (1876), and 86: 45<M53 (1878).
A more general article was published in the Rev. sci. (2) 18: 814-820 (1880). His
earlier observations were collected and amplified in a work entitled Les Poussieres de
Pair, published in 1877.
THE PHYSICS OF DUST SUSPENSION. Ill
maximum velocity even lower than that assumed. The continual
eddying of the air currents as described on page 34 is therefore
well able to keep them in suspension.
The vitreous and mineral fragments are even more easily sus-
pended, and the organic particles more easily still. Air dusts some-
times contain particles of soot, volcanic glass, etc., as large as 0.1
mm. in their longest diameter. * The consequent movements of the
air currents carry this dust far and wide and mix it so thoroughly
that all local differences disappear; and the true atmospheric dust
becomes practically the same the world over.
Of the atmospheric dust which is carried to the ground a small
part doubtless falls of itself during periods of calm/ and a large part
is filtered out of the lower air by vegetation/* but by far the largest
part is washed out by rain and snow. Not only is dust entangled by
falling water drops and snow crystals, but the dust particles them-
selves act as nuclei around which the rain drops condense.'
It is possible that the dust itself, through the modifications which
it brings about in the heat-absorbing power of the air of which it is
a part, tends to set up currents which help keep it in suspension.'
The dust particles doubtless absorb radiant heat more rapidly than
does the surrounding air, and hence when dusty air is exposed to the
sun's rays each dust mote will act as a miniature furnace. The
aggregate result is that dusty air becomes more highly heated by the
* On the flotation of volcanic dust, see Murray and Renard — Proc. Roy. soc. Edin-
burgh 12: 486(1883-4).
ftTissandier— Gompt. rend. 78: 823 (1874), 81 1 577(1875); Lea Pouflsieres de 1'air,
pp. 9-10. See also Table III, p. 45, above.
c For instance, the air of the desert is always clearer in the morning. See Hedin —
Scientific Results, vol. 1, p. 212 (1904); and Huntington — Pulse of Asia, p. 185
(1907). A similar greater clearness of the morning air in humid regions would be
noticed were there so great a difference in the rapidity of air movement in the day-
time and at night as there is in the desert.
<f See Rolleston— Jour. Roy . geog. soc. 49 : 346-347 (1879) and authorities there cited .
€ See Aitken's papers in the Trans, and Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh, 1880 to 1902
(cited in the bibliography). His work is largely summarized in a paper before the
International Meteorological Congress held at Chicago in 1893: Bull. 11, Weather
Bureau, U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 734-754. See also Coulier— Jour, pharm. chim. (4) 22 :
165-173 (1875). Condensation can, however, take place on nuclei other than dust
particles (ions, etc.), though not so readily. See Barus — Pub. Carnegie Institution of
Washington, 40, 1906; 62, 1907; 96, 1908. Also several articles by him in Science,
1904-1908, and a short article in Nature 69: 103 (1903). For a short general discus-
sion of condensation nuclei, see C. T. R. Wilson— Nature 68 : 548-550 (1903). Melan-
der has observed in the dust from Vesuvius certain particles which Beem more than
normally efficient in condensing moisture on themselves (Ofvere. Finska vet. soc. fdrh.
43: 148-160 [1901]). He believes these to be particles of more or less deliquescent
Baits.
/This was suggested for sirocco dust by Mill and Lempfert — Quart, jour. Roy.
meteor, soc. 30: 71 (1904). On heat absorption, etc., by dust in air, see Sen-ell—
Nature 30: 53-54 (1884).
112 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
sun than air carrying little or no suspended matter. Therefore if a
dusty stratum lie below an empty one, the lower may become suffi-
ciently heated to rise through the higher. It is quite possible that
this action is important in thoroughly mixing suspended dust through
the air. Aitken ° has made the interesting observation that dust
motes are not affected by solar heat focused by a large lens, where
larger objects would be burnt up at once. This is probably because
the mote loses heat so rapidly to the surrounding air.
THE SOURCES OF ATMOSPHERIC DUST.
In the atmosphere generally most of the dust is probably organic,
and consists of animal and vegetable fragments, living bacteria and
spores, grains of pollen, fragments of diatoms, etc. The predominance
of organic matter is due to the low specific gravity and irregular form
of these fragments, which consequently possess a high surface-mass
ratio and are easily suspended. Mineral grains are heavier and more
nearly spherical, and therefore tend to settle out more rapidly. True
soil material is, however, never entirely absent from atmospheric
dust.
In the air of cities' and other places where many fires are burning
the air is much contaminated by soot and fine ash discharged by the
chimneys. Much of this material is so fine that it falls very slowly
and forms part of the permanently suspended dust of the atmos-
phere. Great fires, especially forest and prairie fires, make a similar
contribution. Much dust other than smoke can also be traced to
human activity — as, for instance, organic fibers from the making and
handling of textiles, dust originating from street traffic, etc. 6
Another source of atmospheric dust is the spray blown inland from
the seas, from which is derived the sodium chloride known to be
present in some quantity in rain, c the amount decreasing with dis-
tance from the seashore. Du Bois d gives yearly averages varying
from 0.66 to 30 milligrams per liter of rain. He calculates the annual
amount of sodium chloride deposited on the dunes of Holland to be
at least 6,000,000 kilograms (13,227,720 pounds). The mean pro-
a Trans. Roy. roc. Edinburgh 42: 489 (1902).
ft An interesting illustration of the odd materials which can be found in atmospheric
dust is furnished by Flogel's detection in dust from snow of ultramarine crystals,
probably derived from blued clothes (Zs. Met. 16 1 368 [1881]).
c See Schtibler — Grundeatze der Meteorologie, p. 140 (1831); Barral — Proc.-verb.
Soc. Philom. 1852: 29-30; Compt. rend. 35: 427-431 (1852); Arago— Oeuvres com-
pletes, vol. 12 : p. 391-407 (1859); Passerini— Boll. Soc. meteor, ital. (2) 13: 66 (1893);
alsoCieletterrelO: 438(1890), 12: 94-96 (1891), and 15: 570(1895); and especially
Du Bois— Ciel et terre 28: 233-245 (1907), Arch. Mus. Teyler (2) 10: 461-467 (1907).
Cf. the observation of Curtis of salt incrustation on an instrument exposed to an ocean
gale, but situated 1 mile inland (Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 30: 89 [1904]).
* Ciel et terre, loc. cit.
THE SOURCES OF ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 113
portion of sodium chloride in rain in England is 2.2 milligrams per
liter . a At Rothamsted it is 2.01 milligrams per liter, 6 at Nantes,
France, it is 14 milligrams per liter, and at Troy, N. Y., 2.7 milli-
grams per liter . d The amounts contained in rain during heavy on-
coast storms are much greater. Lobry de Bruyn* observed 350-500
milligrams per liter in Holland and the British Rivers Pollution Com-
mitted found 218 milligrams per liter at Lands End, England.
Clyde ' states that the rain on the shores of the Caspian is sometimes
salt to the taste, which statement is discredited by Petzholdt,* but
receives support from the observation of J. W. Gregory* that in
central Australia the first drops of a rain storm are salty. The
amounts of salt in rain in the interior of the continents are of course
much less, but are still considerable at some distance from the coast'
and even on high mountains.* It has been suggested that the con-
tinental salt deposits have been formed from wind-borne oceanic
salt,' and also that blown dust is the source of the chlorine in the
cerargyite ores of arid regions.™
A rain of solid salt crystals, doubtless derived from the evapora-
tion in the air of drops of spray, occurred at Mantua, Italy, July 25,
1878, and has been reported by Agostini.* Sodium chloride has also
° 6th Rept. Gt. Brit. Rivers Pollution Com., p. 425 (1874). See also the analyses by
Robert Angus Smith on pp. 18-19 and 27-32 of the report cited, and on pp. 281-380 of
his work "Air and Rain " (1872).
& Warington— Jour. Chem. soc. London 51: 502(1887). The annual rainfall at
' Rothamsted is 31.65 inches, so that the yearly deposit of sodium chloride is 24 pounds
per acre.
« Bobierre— Cdmpt. rend. 58: 755 (1864).
d Mason— Water supply, p. 205 (1896).
« Quoted by Du Bois—Ciel et terre 28: 233-245 (1907).
/ Loc. cit., p. 29.
9 School geography, p. 32 (1870).
* Nature 29: 172(1883).
* Dead heart of Australia, p. 137 (1906). Korty (Electricity 10 : 93 [1896]) describes
a salt storm in eastern Utah so severe that the deposited salt interfered with the
working of the telegraph.
i See figures for RothamBted, England, and for Troy, N. Y., given above.
* Mttntz— Compt. rend. 112: 447-450 (1891).
I Posepny— Sitzungsb. KaiBerl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 76: 17&-212 (1877), Verh.
geol.Reichsanst.1877: 222-223; Walther— Wustenbildung,p.l45(1900); Ackroyd—
Proc. Yorkshire geol. and polyt. soc. (n. s.) 14: 401^*21 (1901), Geol. mag. (4) 8:
445-449 (1901), Quart, statement Palestine explor. fund 1904: 64-66; Pivovarov—
P6dologie 1906: 67-S0. For the contrary opinion, see Tietze— Jahrb. geol. Reichs-
anst. 27 : 341-374 (1877); Joly— Geol. mag. (4) 8 : 344-350 (1901). The >ery thorough
and careful investigations of Holland and Christie (Rec. Geol. surv. India 38 : 154-186
[1909]) on the salt deposits of Rajputana led to the conclusion that the salts of these
deposits are in the main wind-borne from the marine salt-flats of the Rann of Cutch.
w Beck— Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten, 3d ed., vol. 2, p. 324 (1909); Keye*—
Econ. geol. 2: 778-780(1907), Trans. Amer. inst. mining engs. 39: 166-169 (1908).
n Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1 : 3-8 (1879). See also II. O. Dwight, London Times cor-
respondence, Dec. 25, 1883, and the rain of salt crystals mentioned on p. 91 above.
Another case, at Pocatello, Idaho, was reported in the daily press on June 21, 1894.
53952°— Bull. 03—11 8
114 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATEBIAL BY THE WIND.
been detected in the air itself when no rain was falling. Determina-
tions by Duphil gave, for seashore air, from 0.3 to 15 milligrams
per cubic meter and for forest air from to 6 milligrams per cubic
meter. In England, Smith b found an average of 0.40 milligrams
per cubic meter, with extremes of 0.07 and 1.15. Sirocco dust col-
lected on a ship off the African coast in February, 1898, contained
over 25 per cent of sea salt. 6
Some of the atmospheric dust is of volcanic origin, and it is prob-
able that a small part is extraterrestrial. These materials will be
discussed below.
THE QUANTITY OF ATMOSPHERIC DUST.
The collection and examination of atmospheric dust is a matter
of peculiar difficulty If the air be passed through water/ as, for
instance, in a gas-absorption bulb, the dust is completely collected
but its properties are often changed by the contact with water, and
it is difficult to remove the water without further modifying the
nature of the dust. The method of collecting dust on plates smeared
with vaseline or glycerine* is open to similar objections. Filters of
cotton-wool stop most of the dust, but it can not afterwards be
separated from the material of the filter. Gun-cotton may be used
instead of ordinary cotton, and then dissolved in ether/ but this will
mean the loss of the ether-soluble constituents of the dust itself.
The very fine platinum screen of A. Schuster would either let some
of the dust through or would clog so rapidly as to be useless. The
method of Rubner* by comparing the discoloration of paper disks
through which samples of air have been filtered gives good results
for soot content but permits no examination of the amount or char-
acter of the mineral dust which may be present. Boxes, through
which dust-laden air is allowed to blow, or funnels built on the rain-
* Soc. eci. et stat. zool. d'Arcachon, Trav. dee Lab. 5 : 58-59 (1900-1).
• Air and Rain, pp. 427-429 (1872).
« Dinklage— Annalen Hydrog. 26: 253-254 (1898).
d Tissandier— Les poussieres de J 'air, p. ix, 2 (1877).
« Airy— Natu*e 9x 439-440 (1874); Ranyard— Man. notes Roy. astron. soc. 89:
165 (1879); Miquel— Ann. Obs. Montsouris 1879: 448-456; J. B. Cohen-nJour. Soc.
chem. ind. 16: 411-412(1897); Duphil— Soc. scient. et stat. zool. d'Arcachon, Ttav.
dee Lab. 5: 6? (190O-1); Glibertr-Zs. Gewerbehyg. 15: 257 (1908).
/See Ditfer- Ciel et terre 25: 498 (1904). Winslow's method (Eng. newB 60:
748 [1908 J), using a filter of granulated sugar afterward dissolved in water, is still less
accurate.
g Bept. Brit, ussoc. 1884: 38.
*Hygien. Runds. 10: 257-263 (1900), Arch. Hygiene 57: 365(1906). See also
Orsi— Ibid. 68: 1A-21 (1908); Liefmann— Deut. Vierteljahre. Offent. Gesundheito-
pflege 40: 325-344 (1908); Friese— SitzungBb. Isis Dresden 1909: 8.
THB QUANTITY OF ATMOSPHERIC DUST. 115
gauge principle and arranged to face the wind, collect the dust in
excellent condition, but do not collect it all. The finest materials
are blown clear through and escape. In fact the material collected
is more largely the transient air dust (drifting soil) than true atmos-
pheric dust. There has not yet been devised an apparatus which
will collect all the dust of the air, or even a representative sample of
it, in a dry and unmodified condition.
Tissandier measured the dust in Parisian air by collecting it in
water and obtained values of from 6 to 23 milligrams per cubic
meter. 6 There are two errors in this method, one due to the vola-
tility in steam of certain organic constitutents of the air dust, and
the other to the solubility in water of the material of the various
containing vessels. The two errors being, however, in opposite direc-
tions, tend to neutralize each other.
The number of dust particles (with no regard to size or weight) in a
given amount of air may be determined with fair accuracy by con-
densing moisture on the particles and counting the water drops pro-
duced. Aitken' s dust-counter is based on this principle. c Vdrner d
claims that the dust in the air may be measured by allowing the
particles to settle on a surface of black polished wood, where they will
stick and may be counted. Relative measurements of the amount
of dust in the air may also be made by observing its transparency.*
The transparency, however, depends on the humidity as well as the
dust content/
The amount of dust in the atmosphere is of course exceedingly
variable from time to time and from place to place. Sometimes the
air is so full of dust that dry fogs, "dark days, 11 etc., result, while at
other times it is nearly dustless. The number of dust particles is
highest in deserts and near thickly settled regions and when the wind
blows therefrom. It is least in winds coming from large oceans or
over unsettled regions (vegetation-covered, of course). There is less
dust in the air over the Highlands of Scotland than in any other
« Himxnel und Erde 18: 279 (1906). Gf. the observation of Curtis on dust col-
lected on the sheet of a sunshine recorder (Symons'a meteor, mag. 88 : 210-211 [1903J)-
ft Compt. rend. 78: 822 (1874), and Les Poussieres do i'air, p. 2 (1877).
c See his papers cited in note «, p. Ill; also Barus— Bull. 12, Weather Bureau, IT. S.
Dept. of Agr. (1895), and references there cited. The Aitken counter counts only
the dry particles in the air. Those with moisture already condensed on them do not
show (Melander— Sur la condensation de la vapeur d'eau dans Tatmuphere, p. 118,
1897). On the use of the Aitken counter see also articles given in the bibliography
under Barns, Conrad, Ficker and Defant, and Rankin.
d Prometheus 16: 173 (1904).
« See Aitken's papers; also Jahresb. Sonnblick-Vereines Vienna 10s 31-32 (1902)
and references cited on pp. 117-119 below.
/ Aitken— loc. citati.
116 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
inhabited region so far examined. The dust content of the upper
air is somewhat less than that of the lower. 6
All the above concerns the dust actually suspended in the air.
The quantity of true atmospheric dust which is deposited on the
surface is even more difficult to measure, because of the impossibility
of distinguishing between it and the transiently suspended drifting
soil. The amount of the former which is spontaneously deposited
on a free surface is probably very slight indeed, for, as before stated,
nearly all such material which falls comes down with rain or snow.
As an indication, however, of the amount of material of all kinds which
is deposited from still air, it is interesting to note certain measure-
ments by Tissandier of the quantity of dust collected on a flat surface
exposed to the atmosphere. Near Paris he obtained in one night
1.5 to 3.5 milligrams per square meter in spite of some loss in collect-
ing. Later he obtained, this time in the country, 10 to $0 milligrams
per square meter in 24 hours.* 1 With improved apparatus at the
Observatory of Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, he obtained 2.1, 4.0, 8.1, 9.2,
and 12.1 milligrams per square meter per twenty-four hours/ Much
larger amounts would doubtless be deposited on a vegetation-covered
surface, or where the wind movement (what little existed) was other-
wise checked. Neither does this include the dust carried down by
rain.
Tissandier has made some determinations of the amount of solid
matter in rain water, obtaining values of from 25 to 172 milligrams
per liter/ Similar values for snow water are from 16 to 75 milligrams
per liter.* A. Schuster* found over 100 milligrams of dust in 25
cubic feet of snow from the Himalaya Mountains. As the amounts
of rain and snow which fell in the various cases are not given, the
figures are of little value. The first drops of a rain storm will of course
contain the largest percentage of dust, and as the storm continues
the air is gradually washed clean.
THE OPTICAL EFFECTS OF DUST IN THE AIR.
The fine particles of air dust, by selectively scattering the light
they receive and thus diffusing the blue while allowing the rest of
the spectrum to pass, are responsible for the blue color of the
o Aitken— Trans. Roy. boc. Edinburgh 42: 486 (1902).
6 Fridiapder— Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 22: 184-203 (189C). See also Lude-
ling— Blast, aeron. Mitt. 7: 321-329 (1903).
e Compt. rend. 78: 823 (1874).
d Ibid. 81:576(1875).
« Lee Poussieres de Pair, p. 8 (1877).
/ Lee Poussieree de Pair, p. 16.
9 Tissandier— Compt. rend. 80: 59 (1875), 81 : 576 (1875).
* Rept. Brit. r.ssoc. 1883: 126.
THE OPTICAL EFFECTS OF DUST IN THE AIB. 117
sky a and the reel color of sunlight which has passed through more than
the usual thickness of air, or through air containing an unusual quantity
of dust. Thus the sun is always redder at sunset or sunrise, and the
sky assumes by reflection various tints of red or orange. When the
air is abnormally dusty, as in deserts or after volcanic eruptions, the
sunsets are especially brilliant. 6 Indeed, it frequently happens that
the air is dusty enough to cause the sun to appear red even during the
middle of the day, and the green and blue colors occasionally observed*
are probably also caused by dust, though in a manner not perfectly
understood. Atmospheric dust is also the cause of the partial polar-
ization of light from the sky, d and of the very rare dust halos or
diffraction coronse about the sun and moon/
From a practical standpoint, however, the most important of
the optical effects of dust in the air is the decrease of atmospheric
transparency which it causes. An unusually large quantity of
dust in the air will produce a dry fog or haze, and this will hap-
pen whenever meteorological conditions are such as to cause the
accumulation in the lower strata of the dust constantly supplied
to the atmosphere, or whenever an extraordinarily large quantity
of dust is rapidly supplied by fires, volcanic eruptions, etc. The
autumn atmosphere in temperate regions is always more or less
hazy, because conditions are then such that dust from the soil,
plants, etc., tends to accumulate in the lower air/ In equatorial
Africa the dust from the ground hangs in the air at certain seasons,
o On the theory of selective scattering and its effects eeeTyndall — Phil. mag. (4) 37 :
384-394(1869), 38: 156-158 (1869); Rayleigh— ibid. (4)41 : 107-120, 274-279, 447-454
(1871), (5) 12: 81-101 (1881), 47: 375-384 (1899); E. L. Nichols— Phys. rev. 26:
497-511(1908); Pernter— Meteorologische Optik, pp. 560-354 (1910). A bibliography
and summary of the literature on the cause of the blue sky and on the polarization of
daylight is given by N. E. Dorsey— Mon. weath. rev. 28 : 382-389 (1900).
& Eiessling — Sitzungeb. Gee. ges. Naturw. Marburg 1904: 9-11. The appearances
after the great eruption of Krakatoa in August, 1883, were very remarkable and long
continued. They are fully described by F. A. R. Russell — Roy. soc. Rept. on
Krakatoa, pp. 151-199 (1888). Similar phenomena were observed after the eruptions
in the West Indies in 1902. See Nature 66: 79, 101-102, 199, 222-223, 294-296, 370,
390 (1902); Gruner— Mitth. naturf. Ges. Bern 1903 s 1-5; and others.
« For several instances of blue and green sun see Archibald — Roy. soc. Rept. on
Krakatoa, pp. 199-217 (1888); and Russell— ibid., pp. 384-405.
* See N. E. Dorsey— Mon. weath. rev. 28: 382-389 (1900), where the literature is
cited and reviewed.
« A dust corona was well developed after the Krakatoa eruption and was named
Bishop's Ring after S. E. BiBhop, of Honolulu, who made the first detailed observations
of it. See Archibald— Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, pp. 232-262 (1888). A similar
ring was observed after the eruptions of 1902. See Forel — Compt. rend . 137 : 380-582
(1903), 138:688-690(1904), 140:694-696(1905); H. H.Clayton— Science (n.s.) 17:
150-152 (1903). For the theory see Pernter— Meteorologische Optik, Absch. Ill, pp.
469-470 (1906).
/ W. L. Moore— Mon. weath. rev. 29: 374 (1901).
118 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
producing a thick haze; the "callina" or hot- weather haze of Spain
is due to similar causes; and dry fogs and hazy conditions are com-
mon in all desert and steppe regions. 5 Those accompanying dust
storms and dust falls have been mentioned already. The storms of
the spring of 1893 in southeastern Russia gave rise to a fog which
reached to Sweden and Denmark.
Much haze and dry fog is also caused by smoke from large fires,
such as burning forests or the prairie fires which were formerly
common on the Great Plains. The burnings of the peat moors of
East Friesland have produced similar phenomena in Germany. 11
Smoke haze frequently travels great distances; thus in 1857 moor
smoke was observed at Vienna and at Krakau, over 500 miles away.*
In cities smoke from industrial and domestic fires plays a large part
in decreasing the transparency of the air — so large that the smoke
nuisance is a great and continually growing evil/ W. N. Shaw g
estimates that the smoke refuse of London is over 300 tons per day.
« Schmid— Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, pp. 793-794 (1860).
ft Hornemann — Voyage dans l'Afrique Septentrionale, vol. 1, p. Ill (1803); Khany-
kov — Soc: geog. Paris, Rec. voy. m6m. 7: 448-451 (1864); Henderson and Hut o —
Lahore to Yarkand, pp. 65, 107, 133(1873); Stoliczka— Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1874:
120; Richthofen— China, vol. 1, p. 97 (1877); Tietze-Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 27:
347-348 (1877); Durand— Compt. rend. Assoc, franc, a van. sci. 7: 474-477 (1878);
Hellmann— Monatsb. E. preuss. Akad. Wise. Berlin 1878: 397; Nachtigal— Sahara
und Sudan, vol. 2, p. 130 (1881); PrzhevalskH— Reisen in der Mongolie, p. 3(1881);
Rohlfs— Kufra, p. 156 (1881); Hanusz— Bull. Soc. hong. geog. 15 1 419-434
(1887); Brewer— Bull. Amer. geog. Soc. 21: 212 (1889); Walther— Einleitung in der
Geologie als hutorische Wissenschaft, p. 595 (1894); Blake — Quart, jour. Geol. soc.
58: 228 (1897); Hedin— Through Asia, vol. 1, pp.450, 516, 523,545, 597 (1899), Cen-
tral Asia and Tibet, vol. 1, pp. 266-267, 272, 278, 287 (1903); Fischer— Peterm. Mitt.
Ergfinzungsh. 188: 122 (1900), Ze. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 85: 411-412 (1900), Mitt,
geog. Ges. Hamburg 18 f 154-156 (1902); Russell— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 199: 18
(1902); Ann. Soc. meteor. Paris 58 : 25-26 (1905); Stein— Sand buried ruins of Khotan,
pp. 237-238, 243, 244 (1903); J. W. Gregory— Dead Heart of Australia, pp. 65-67, 79
(1906); Takagi— Kisho Sh. 25: 219-232 (1906); Huntington— Pulse of Asia, pp. 92,
103, 134-135, 157 (1907); Hornaday— Oampfires on desert and lava, pp. 170-172
(1908); Bowman— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 41 : 150 (1909). The desert of Kirman in
Persia is an exception to the general rule (Henderson and Hume, loc. cit.).
c KlossovskH— Ciel et terre 15 : 562 (1895). On the common dust fog (" mgla ") in
southern Russia, see the works given in the bibliography under AgrinskQ, Bondyrev,
Braunov, Heintz, la. I., Ivanov, Morozov, N-v., Nikolaev, Polferov,S-n., Safonov,
Sanin, and Schultz.
d Fincke— Der Moorrauch in Westphalen, 1825; Arends— Abhandlungen von Rassen-
brennen und den Moorbrennen, 1826; Veltmann— Arch. ges. Naturl. 10 : 266-272
(1827); Woyna— Zs. Forstwiss. 85: 116-119 (1903).
« Prestel— Peterm. Mitth. 4: 106-110 (1858).
/ See the bibliography of Frazer— Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 88: 520-555 (1908);
also TBchorn— Die Rauch-Plage, Handb. der Hygiene, Suppl.-Bd. 8: 127-200
(1903); Rubner— Archiv. Hyg.59: 131-149 (1906); Cohen and Ruston— Nature 81:
468-469 (1909).
9 Jour. San. inst. 28: 318 (1902).
THE OPTICAL EFFECTS OF DUST IN THE AIR. 119
Dry fogs have frequently followed violent volcanic phenomena, and
have been observed at great distances from the seat of disturbance.
Thick dry fog was observed in Germany after the eruption of Kdt-
lugia (Iceland) in 1721, ° and both in Germany and the rest of Europe
after the eruption of 1755.* The great dry fog of 1783, which covered
all Europe and persisted for months, causing all kinds of unusual
meteorological phenomena, is believed to have been due to the dust
ejected during the violent eruption of Skaptar Jokull, in Iceland, in
May and June. c Hazy conditions, beautiful sunsets, etc., also fol-
lowed the eruption of Tomboro in 1815 ; d of Vatna Jokull in 1875;* of
Krakatoa in 1883 ;/ of Pel6e in 1902,* and of Vesuvius in 1906.* The
Krakatoa haze was remarkable for the unusually great altitude at
which it was observed.
The thermal intensity of the sun's rays may be greatly diminished
by passage through dusty air, even when no haze is visible, as was
shown by the behavior after the eruptions of Pel6e and La Soufrifire
of the electrical sunshine recorder at St. Kitts (West Indies), the mer-
cury in which barely touched the contact wires even on the clearest
days, although normally in that latitude it extends well into the
upper bulb.' Hedin' has made analogous observations of the
decrease of insolation and nocturnal radiation during dusty weather
in the Takla-makan desert.
Arctic travelers have described a haze due to floating ice-crystals
and quite similar in appearance to the typical dust haze.*
a Kaemtz — Meteorology, Walker's transl., p. 470 (1844).
& Saccheti— Phil, trans. 49, I: 409-411 (1755); Whytt— Phil, trans. 49, II: 509-
511 (1756).
c Brugman — Verhandelingen over een zwavelagtigen Nevel, 1783; Bertholon — Lit.
mag. and Brit. rev. 2: 97-103 (1789); Ann. chim. phys. (2) 13: 106 (1820); Martins—
Proc. verb. Soc. philom. Paris 1851 : 5-11; Ditte— Ciel et terre 25: 533 (1904); and
the literature cited by F. A. R. Russell — Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, pp. 388-392
(1888).
d Howard— The climate of London, vol. 2, pp. 267-281 (1833).
e F. A. R. Russell— Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, p. 401 (1888).
/ See references cited on p. 117.
g See references cited on p. 117; also Gockel— Met. Zs. 20: 328 (1903); Liubo-
slavskll— Meteor. Vfeat. 1903: 243-248; H. E. Hobbe et al.— Mon. weath. rev. 80 1
487-488 (1902).
» Meunier— Compt. rend. 142: 938 (1906).
i H. E. Hobbs— Mon. weath. rev. 30: 488 (1902). See also Dufoui^-Met. Zs. 20:
223 (1903); Gorczynski— Compt. rend. 138: 255-258 (1904); Abbe— Astron. Nachr.
165: 285-288 (1904); Kimball— Proc. conv. U. S. Weather Bur. officers 8: 69-77.
(1904), Mon. weath. rev. 33: 100-101 (1905). It has been suggested by P. and F.
Sarasin that the glacial period was caused by decrease of insolation due to an abnormal
amount of dust in the air (Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel 18: 603-618 [1902]).
i Through Asia, vol. 1, p. 466 (1899).
* Belcher— The Last of the Arctic Voyages, vol. 1, pp. 318, 358 (1855); 1. 1. Hayes—
The open Polar sea, p. 194 (18C7); Payer— New lands within the Arctic Circle, vol.
2, pp. 50, 61 (1876); De Long— The voyage of the JeannetU, vol. 1, pp. 147-148
(1883); etc.
120 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL DUST.
Though most of the dust of the atmosphere is undoubtedly of
terrestrial origin, there is evidence that some small quantity of cosmic
material is present. The meteoric masses encountered by the earth
probably aggregate not less than 100 tons per day,° and only a few
of these reach the surface. The remainder are disintegrated in the
atmosphere, and the product of their disintegration must be largely
fine dust, of which that from stony meteorites would differ so slightly
from ordinary terrestrial material as to be difficult if not impos-
sible of identification. The material of metallic meteorites is more
characteristic, and it is probable that from the disintegration of these
bodies arises at least a part of the magnetic particles found in air
dusts. 6 Especially is this origin probable for all or a part of the
minute spheres of metallic iron which are often present. These
were first found by Ehrenberg c in dust which fell on the ship Josiak
Bates south of Java, January 24 to 25, 1859, and have been carefully
studied by N. A. E. NordenskioH d in dusts collected from snow
and ice in high latitudes and by Tissandier* in dusts from many
different sources. They are not always perfect spheres, but often
more or less irregular in shape, with rounded edges, and greatly
resemble particles rubbed from the surface of metallic meteorites/
They usually contain nickel and cobalt as do meteoric irons in
general. They have been found in dust directly collected from the
air by Phipson,* Marte-Davy,' and Tissandier; * in dust from the
top of a church tower by Thoulet; * in dust from snow by Yung, 1
FlSgel, 1 " A. Schuster," and N. A. E. Nordenskiold;' in sirocco dust
a Smyth— Nature 29: 150 (1883); Langley, New York Tribune, Jan. 2, 1884.
ft For notices of several cases in which a fall of fine dust accompanied the fall of a
meteor, see N. A. E. NordenBki5ld— Met. Zs. 11 : 212 (1894).
cMonatsb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1858: 1-41. See also Reichenbach —
Ann. Phys. Chem. (Poggendorf) 106: 476-490 (1859).
* Compt. rend. 77: 463-465 (1873), 78: 236-239 (1874).
« Compt. rend. 80: 58-61 (1875), 81: 576-579 (1875), 83: 75-78 (1876). These
observations are collected and supplemented in Lee Poussieres de l'air. See also
Ditto— Ciel et Terre 25: 497-610, 525-534 (1904).
/Tissandier— Compt. rend. 83: 76-78 (1876).
f Tissandier— Compt. rend. 83: 75-76 (1876); and Les Poussieres de Pair, p. 49.
A Meteors, aerolites and falling stars, pp. 229-230 (1867); Compt. rend. 83: 364-365
(1876).
'Bull. mens. Obs. Montsouris 5: 11 (1876).
jLoei citati.
* Compt. rend. 146: 1347(1908).
J Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. 14: 493-506 (1877); and Compt. rend. 83: 242-243
(1876).
»Ze. Met. 16: 321-330 (1881).
* Kept. Brit, assoc. 1883: 126.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL DUST. 121
by Macagno and Tacchini, Palmeri, 6 Silvestri, 6 and Roster.* Fer-
ruginous nuclei in hail have been observed by Eversman,' von
Baumhauer/ and others. These spherules can be detected in most
atmospheric dusts, but are comparatively few in number, and occa-
sionally altogether absent. Camerlander' found none in the dusts
examined by him, and von Lasaulx* found none in cryokonite.
Palmeri ' found magnetic iron oxide, but no spherules, in several
samples of sirocco dust from Naples. Liversidge' found no
spherules in the air-borne dust of New South Wales, but did find
that it contained traces of cobalt, nickel, and metallic iron. Spher-
ules could not be found in the sirocco dust which fell in Europe,
April 21, 1880,* or. that which fell October 14, 1885.* They have
been found in Sahara sand by Tacchini w and by A. Schuster ; n in
various rocks by Andrews, Hoffmann,? and Meunier and Tissandier;*
and are nearly always present in deep-sea deposits/ Similar iron
spherules, but containing no nickel, have been found by Tissandier *
in the mud of the Seine.
It is not improbable that some of the supposedly cosmic spherules
may be derived from iron furnaces, fires, etc. Spherules quite simi-
lar to the atmospheric ones, but somewhat larger, have been obtained
by Rose* (working with Ehrenberg) by burning iron in oxygen,
and by Tissandier" by burning iron wire in air; and bodies of the
same general nature have been found by Meunier and Tissandier 9
a Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1: 69 (1879); see also Tacchini— Mem. Soc. spettrosc. ital.
8 Append . : 19-20 (1879) .
* Rend. R. Accad. Sci. fis. Naples 18: 112-113 (1879).
c Trans. R. Accad. Lincei (3) 4: 163-166 (1880).
drOrosi8: 75(1885).
« Ann. Physik 76: 340 (1824).
/Compt. rend. 74: 679(1872).
fJahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 38: 281-310 (1888).
ATschermak's min. Mitt. (n. s.) 3: 524(1880).
<Rend. R. Accad. Sci. fis. Naples (3) 7: 156-157, 163, 172 (1901).
i Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. N. S. Wales 36: 243-244, 254-255 (1902).
* Daubree— Compt. rend. 90: 1098-1101 (1880).
/Max. Schuster— Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 93: 85 (1886).
m Trans. R. Accad. Lincei (3) 7: 135 (1883).
»Rept. Brit, assoc. 1882: 91.
oRept. Brit, assoc. 1852, II: 34-35.
V Trans. Roy. soc. Canada 8, III: 39-42 (1890).
9 Compt. rend. 86: 452-453 (1878).
t Murray— Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 9: 247-262 (1876); Meunier and Tissandier—
Compt. rend. 86: 451 (1878); Murray and Renard — Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12 1
490-494 (1883-84).
« Compt. rend. 83: 78 (1876).
* Reichenbach— Ann. Phys. Chem. (Poggendorf) (4) 16: 479 (1859).
«Corapt. rend. 81: 578 (1875).
•Compt. rend. 86: 451 (1878).
122 MOVEMENT OP SOU, MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
at the bottom of a well in which dynamite had been exploded in an
iron casing. Ditte's" argument that a cosmic origin in all cases is
proven by the content of nickel and cobalt is unsound in the light
of the discovery by Hartley and Ramage b of these elements in ordi-
nary coal smoke. On the other hand, the occurrence of spherules
in ancient rocks laid down long before the advent of man, or at least
of man's industrial operations,' speaks strongly for a cosmic origin.
Taken together the evidence seems to favor the conclusion of an
origin in some cases cosmic and in some terrestrial. A partial ter-
restrial origin seems especially probable in the light of the observa-
tion of Yung* that more iron is found in the atmosphere at lower
than at higher altitudes.
GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF EOLIAN ORIGIN.
In deserts eolian sands and dusts form a large part of the recent
deposits, but in ordinary climates the wind-borne detritus is usually
so incorporated with material from other sources that it can not be
distinguished therefrom. While it is probable that some eolian mate-
rial is present in nearly all surface deposits the world over, formations
which are predominantly and characteristically eolian are much less
numerous and extensive than are those which are characteristically
aqueous. The loess, however (as will be later discussed), is of quite
wide distribution and has probably been formed, at least in part, by
the wind. There are other less extensive formations which are even
more exclusively eolian; as, for instance, the drifting sands already
discussed at length, the volcanic ash deposits which will be discussed
later, and especially the eolian soils.
EOLIAN SOILS.
In a few places, mainly in or near areas of more or less complete
aridity, the soil has been identified as largely of direct eolian origin.
Thus on the Snake River Plains in Idaho the lava is thinly covered
with a very fine yellowish sand, which is evidently wind deposited
and which has probably been brought by the wind from a distance,
though it may have originated in some part by disintegration of the
lava. e Similarly the only soil on the lava plains of the Alamogordo
a Ciel et terre 25s 525-527 (1904).
&Proc. Roy. eoc. 68: 97-109 (1901); Hartley— Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. (n. a.) 9:
547-555 (1901). The latter article discusses the industrial origin of atmospheric dusts
in general.
«See page 121; also Tissandier— Rev. sci. (2) 18: 817 (1880).
d Tissandier— Poussieres de l'air, p. 37 (1877).
« Russell— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 199: 21, 25, 68, 73, 101, 107, and especially 13&-
139 (1902). From a personal examination of these soils the present writer has come
to entire concurrence in RunseU's conclusions. The conditions in the valleys just to
the west of the Snake River Plains are quite similar. See Russell — U. S. Geol. surv.
Bull. 217 : 19 (1903).
EOLIAN SOILS. 128
Desert in New Mexico has been brought there by the wind. Areas
of soil formed or modified by wind action have been found in many of
the areas surveyed by this bureau, 6 and the present writer has exam-
ined other areas in Maryland, Idaho, Oregon, Nevada, and California.
Stevenson, Schaub, and Snyder* believe that the "Missouri loess"
of southwestern Iowa is wind formed, and Cross d advances a similar
hypothesis in explanation of the origin of the red soil which tops the
gravels of southwestern Colorado. In the latter case the material is
supposed to have been brought by the wind from the deserts to the
west. Fischer « believes that the "tirs" or black earth of Morocco
is eolian. The eolian soils of the Mexican Plateau are noted by R. T.
« Macbride— Science (n. s.) 21 : 93 (1905).
& Following are the areas, with references to the Reports of the Field Operations of
the Bureau of Soils: Merrimack County, N. H. (1906: 60-61); Rhode Island (1904:
63); Long Island, N. Y. (1903: 116); Niagara County, N. Y. (1906: 106, 107, 109);
Salem, N.J. (1901: 136); Dover, Del. (1908: 150); Worcester, Md. (1903: 174);
Easton, Md. (1907: 139); Norfolk, Va. (1903: 237); Parkersburg, W, Va. (1908,
Advance sheets, Parkersburg Area, p. 32); Craven, N. C. (1908 : 257); New Hanover,
N.C. (1906: 257-268); Chowan County, N. C. (1906: 230); Robeson County, N. C.
(1908, Advance sheets, Robeson Area, pp. 25-26); Charleston, S. C. (1904: 213);
Meigs County, Ohio (1906: 725); Posey County, Ind. (1902: 451); Marshall
County, Ind. (1904: 699); Tippecanoe County, Ind. (1904 : 797); Newton County,
Ind. (1905: 761,767,768,769); Green County, Ind. (1906: 765); Saginaw, Mich.
(1904: 612); Cass County, Mich. (1906: 748); Tazewell County, 111. (1902: 470,
471,473); Sangamon County, 111. (1903: 715); Winnebago County, 111. (1903: 768,
769); OTallon, Missouri-Illinois (1904: 837); Dubuque, Iowa (1902 : 588); Storey
County, Iowa (1903: 841); Tama County, Iowa (1904: 782-783); Henry County,
Ala. (1908, Advance Bheets, Henry County Area, p. 24); Biloxi, Miss. (1904: 363);
Jasper County, Miss. (1907: 544); Superior, Wisconsin-Minnesota (1904: 760);
Blue Earth County, Minn. (1906: 843,844); Crookston, Minn. (1906: 884); Ran-
som County, N. Dak. (1906: 979); Carrington, N. Dak. (1905: 935, 936); Grand
Island, Nebr. (1903: 939); Stanton, Nebr. (1903: 954); Sarpy County, Nebr.
(1905: 901); North Platte, Nebr. (1907: 823-824, 830); Riley County, Kans.
(1906: 938); Wichita, Kans. (1902: 635, 636); Garden City, Kans. (1904: 904);
Lower Arkansas Valley, Colo. (1902 : 740, 741, 753) ; Oklahoma County, Okla. (1906 :
571,572,579); Conway County, Ark. (1907 : 770); Vernon, Tex. (1902: 372); San
Antonio, Tex. (1904 : 456); Houston County, Tex. (1905 : 543); Waco, Tex. (1905 :
679); Henderson, Tex. (1906: 469); Wilson County, Tex. (1907 : 652); Blackfoot,
Idaho (1908: 1035); Minidoka, Idaho (1907: 91&-916, 917, 918, 919, 921); Salt
Lake Valley, Utah (1899 : 101); Provo, Utah (1903: 1127,1128-1129); Pecos Val-
ley, N. Mex. (1899: 62-63); Solomonsville, Ariz. (1908: 1054, 1059); Salt River
Valley, Ariz. (1900: 204,299-302); Yuma, Ariz. (1902: 781-782; 1904: 1029);
San Luis Valley, Cal. (1903: 1104); Ventura County, Cal. (1901: 528); San Ber-
nardino Valley, Cal. (1904: 1140-1141); Los Angeles, Cal. (1903: 1270-1271,
1272); Santa Ana, Cal. (1900: 390); Porto Rico (1902: 805).
clowa Agr. expt. stat. Bull. 95: 14 (1908).
'Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 19: 53-62 (1908).
ePeterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 188: 117-124 (1900), Ze. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 85: 412
(1900), Mitt. geog. Ges. Hamburg 18: 149-159 (1902). For a contrary opinion see
Gentil— Compt. rend. 146: 243-246 (1908).
124 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Hill, and those of the steppes of southeastern Russia have been
described by Pallas, 6 BlSletskIK, c and Sibirzev. d The last author*
notes similar occurrences in Central Africa. Of course, eolian loess
is simply -an eolian soil deposited in past ages, and those areas where
loess is now being deposited by the wind are naturally areas of eolian >h
soil. Some such are described on pages 139-140 below. "*~
The eolian soils are in general distinguished by no special character-
istic except unusual uniformity in the size of particle. Owing to the
nature of air transportation (as already discussed) the particles of
any one deposit are likely to be nearly of the same size, though differ-
ent deposits may of course differ greatly from each other in this
respect. For all other characters, including indeed the actual size of
particle which prevails, an eolian soil is dependent upon the special
conditions which accompanied its formation. Its mineral composi-
tion is likely, however, to be more than usually diverse because of the
great extension of its agent of formation. The identification of a
wind-formed soil depends both upon its general geologic and geo-
graphic situation and upon its internal characteristics, but much
more upon the former than the latter. The problem differs in no
way from that of the identification of soil origins in general.
Besides the areas of exclusively (or predominantly) eolian soil as
just mentioned, there are many cases where the addition of some
quantity of wind-blown material to a soil of other origin noticeably
modifies the nature of the latter, beneficially or the reverse. Thus
the writer has observed a case (at Guadaloupe, Cal.) where the addi-
tion of sand blown out of a coastal dune complex has materially
improved the physical texture of the water-laid soils farther inland.
Similar cases have been noted by Hughes f and Beadnell * in Egypt,
and by Juritz * in South Africa. Haworth ' notes the reverse con-
dition where the addition of blown clay decreases the permeability of
the soil.
THE LOESS.
The loess was first described in the vallev of the Rhine, but has
since been found to be very extensively developed in China, in North
America, and in southeastern Europe. It consists of a yellow, or
«Eng. min. jour. 83: 663 (1907). Cf. also the articles of Virlet d'Aoust and
Meunier, cited on p. 140 below.
& Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen russischen Reiche, vol. 1, p. 365 (1771).
c Mater, izuch. russk. pochv 9: 1-40 (1895).
<*Compt. rend. Cong. geol. intern. 7: 90-92 (1897). See also Nehring— Tundren
und Steppen, pp. 126-128 (1890), and the discussion of recent loess on p. 140 below.
e Loc. cit. See also Walther — Einleitung in der Geologie als historische Wissen-
schaft, p. 811 (1894).
/Yearb. Khediv. agr. soc. 1906: 133-134.
9 An Egyptian oasis, pp. 78-79, 81 (1909).
*Rept. South African assoc. adv. sci. 1908: 87-104.
<U. S. Geol. surv. Water supp. pap. 6: 13 (1897).
THE LOESS.
125
yellowish-brown, calcareous silt-loam, remarkably uniform in me-
chanical composition and usually without stratification. Its com-
ponent grains are angular and loosely arranged, giving it a high
porosity and great absorptive power. It tends to split in vertical
planes, producing perpendicular cliffs or bluffs along water courses
and in other places where it is subject to erosion. Throughout many
deposits of loess are fantastically formed concretions of calcium car-
bonate; the Loess- Mdnnchen of the Germans." In China, *nd to a
less extent in other localities, these concretions are likely to occur in
horizontal planes, thus simulating strata and, in connection with the
vertical cleavage, causing the loess to erode in a series of terraces,
the tops of which are formed (and protected) by a layer of concre-
tions. The concretions are believed to be of secondary origin and
their occurrence in horizontal planes is probably due to the perco-
lation of water along these planes. 6 The fossils of the loess are
everywhere almost entirely terrestrial in character. 6 Fresh-water
o Jentzsch— Zs. ges. Naturw. 40 : 82-89 (1872) ; Richthofen— China, vol. 1, pp. 58-59
(1877); Frantzen— Jahrb. preuss.geol. Landesanst. 1885: 257-266; Pofcta— SitzungBb.
K. bdhm. Ges. Wise. 1887: 598-601; Jenny— Mitt, naturf. Gee. Bern 1889: 126-
127; Steinmann— Mitt. bad. geol. Landesanst. 2: 130-133 (1893); Zahalka— Verh.
geol. Reichsanst. 1896: 285-286; FrOh— VierteljahiBch. naturf. Ges. Zurich 44: 167
(1899). An analysis of concretions from the German loess gave:
8IO» 31824
£8} 4aM
CaO 203
CaCOi 55.294
MgO 178
MgCd 1.890
KjO 1.048
NajO 1.202
P«0» 157
Sd 090
H*0 377
Blanck— Landw. Vers. Stat. 65: 471-476 (1907). The concretions of the American
loess have been described by Call — Amer. nat. 16: 373 (1882). On the similar con-
cretions of the loess-like deposits of the South American pampas see Ameghino — La
Formaci6n Pampeana, pp. 179-200 (1881).
& Richthofen— China, vol. 1, pp. 61-62 (1877).
cOn the fossils of the European loess see Braun — Ber. Yersamml. deut. Naturf. 20:
142-152 (1842), NeuesJahrb. Min. 1847: 49-53; Stizenberger— Ubersicht Versteiner-
ungen Grossherzogthums Baden, pp. 30-31, 107-110 (1851); Mousson — Vierteljs.
naturf. Ges. Zurich 1: 250-259 (1856); Petera— Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1863:
118-120; Sandberger — Land- und Susswasserconchylien der Vorwelt, pp. 866-906
(1870-75); Jentzsch— Si tzungsb. Isis Dresden 1871: 148-150, Zs. ges. Naturw. 40:
96-98 (1872); Braun — ibid., p. 45; Richthofen — loc. cit.; Sandberger — Verh. med.-
phys. Ges. Wurzburg 14: 125-140 (1880); Nehring— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 32: 468r-509
(1880); Hilber— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 32: 316 (1882); Tietze— ibid., pp. 112-114;
Nehring— Geol. mag. (2) 10: 51-58 (1883); Schumacher— Erl. geol. Karte Strass-
burg, pp. 37-38, 41 (1883); Sandberger— NeuesJahrb. Min. 1883: 182-183; Chelius—
Notizbl. Ver. Erdk. Darmstadt 1884: 18-19; Wahnschaffe— Jahrb. K. preuss.geol.
Landesanst. 1886: 253-258; Rzehak— Verh. naturf. Ver. Brunn 26, Abh.: 74-78
(1887); Makowsky— ibid., pp. 205-243 (1887); Wollemann— Verh. naturh. Ver. preuss.
Rheinl. Westf. 44: 260-268 (1887), 45: 237-291 (1888); Kafka— Sitzungsb. fc.
bdhm. Ges. Wiss. 1889: 195-207; Jenny— Mitt, naturf. Ges. Bern 1889: 120-153;
Sauer— NeuesJahrb. Min. 1890, II: 93-94; Sandberger— Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel 8:
796-801 (1890); Chelius— Notizbl. Ver. Erdk. Darmstadt 1892: 21-23; Koch—
Jahresb. Ver. Naturw. Braunschweig 1893-5: 35-37; Nehring— ibid, pp. 45-47;
126 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
forms are rare and marine forms entirely absent. The shells of
land snails and similar mollusks are especially abundant. Through-
out many loessial deposits are numerous minute tubes running more
or less vertically and usually lined with calcium carbonate. These
tubes have been supposed to have much to do with the tendency to
split in vertical planes, and have been regarded by the advocates of
the theory of eolian origin as casts of the roots of plants which grew
on the loess as it was being deposited. It has, however, been recently
suggested by Willis ° that the vertical cleavage is due to the peculiar
physical structure developed by the settling and consolidation of the
originally loose material. The horizontal interspaces between parti-
cles tend to close, whereas the vertical spaces remain of their original
size, and cementing waters then tend to fill up first the smaller hori-
zontal spaces. The resulting structure would naturally possess a
roughly vertical cleavage. It is possible that the tubules may have
been produced, as a phase of the same process, by the union of super-
posed vertical interspaces into more or less vertical tubes, which
would act as passages for lime-bearing waters, become lined with
calcium carbonate and take on an approximately cylindrical form.
The loess is most extensive in China, where it covers about 300,000
square miles. It has been studied and described in that country
Gutzwiller— Der Lees, pp. 14-21 (1894), Verh. naturf. Gee. Basel 10: 634-669, 679-
682 (1895) ; MakowBky— Compt. rend. Cong. geol. intern. 7 : 183-186 (1897) ; Piperoff—
Beitr. geol. Karte Schweiz n. s. 37, VII: 56 (1897); Viglinoand Capeder — Boll. Soc.
geol. ital. 17: 84 (1898); Fruh— Vierteljs. naturf. Gee. Zurich 44: 170-171 (1899);
WOflt— Zb. Naturw. 71: 442-446 (1899); Handmann— Verh. geol. ReichBanst. 1903:
343-344.
On the fossils of the American loess see Binney — Proc. Boston soc. nat. hist. 2t
126-130 (1848); Swallow— Kept. Missouri Geol. surv. 1-2: 74, 115 (1855); Todd—
Proc. Amer. assoc. adv. sci. 27: 235-236 (1878); Call— Amer. nat. 15: 58&-586,
782-784 (1881), 16: 380-381 (1882); McGee and Call— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 24=: 202-
223 (1882); Chamberlin and Salisbury— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 6, I: 285-286
(1885); Webster— Amer. nat. 22: 419 (1888); Keyes— Bull. Essex inst. 20: 61-83
(1888); McGee— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 11, I: 435-171 (1891); Todd— Rept.
Missouri Geol. surv. 10: 129-130 (1896); Bain— Iowa Geol. surv. 7: 344 (1896);
Beyer— ibid., 7: 237 (1896), 9: 202 (1898); Leverett— U. S. Geol. surv. Monogr. 38:
165-176 (1899); Udden— Iowa Geol. surv. 11: 111-113, 260-265 (1900); Winchell—
Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 14: 145-146 (1903); M. L. Fuller and Clapp— ibid, pp. 161-
163 (1903); I. A. Williams— Iowa Geol. surv. 15: 327 (1904); Owen— Amer. geol.
85: 291-500 (1905); and especially Shimek— Amer. geol. 1: 14&-152 (1888); Bull.
Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 1: 200-214 (1890), 2: 89-98 (1890), 5: 195-212 (1901);
Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 3: 82-S9 (1895), 4: 68-72 (1897), 5: 32-45 (1896), 6: 98-113
(1898), 7: 47-59 (1899), 10: 41-48 (1902), 14: 237-256 (1907), 15: 117-135(1908);
Jour. geol. 7: 122-140 (1899); Amer. geol. 30: 279-299 (1902); Iowa Geol. surv.
<13: 170-175 (1903). The papers of the last author form the most important and
comprehensive American contribution to the subject. His conclusion is that the
loessial fauna was almost exclusively terrestrial.
» Pub. Carnegie Institution of Washington 54:, vol. 1, pt. I, pp. 252-253 (1907).
THE LOESS. 127
by Pftre David, Pumpelly, 6 Kingsmill,' Richthofen,* Obruchev,«
Viglino/ Leprince-Ringuet,* Wright,* and Willis.* Similar deposits
exist over much of Germany and Austria-Hungary, especially in the
river valleys,' on the steppes of southern Russia and Turkestan/
and in the Mississippi basin in North America, 2 fringing and occa-
«~ — — ^ — — — — — iii » — — ^»»
"Bull. Nouv.arch.Mus.hist.nat.8: 18-96(1867), 4: 3-82(1868), 5: 3-13(1869),
7: 75-100 (1871), 8: 3-128 (1872), 9: 13-48 (1873), and 10: 3-82 (1874); Bull. Soc.
geog. Paris (6) 9: 5-45, 131-176 (1875), 11: 24-52, 156-183, 278-303 (1876). See
also his Journal de mon troisieme voyage dans l'empire chinois, 1875.
6 Smithsonian contrib. 15, IV, 1866; Amer. jour. sci. (3) 17: 133-144 (1879).
cGeol. mag. 3: 369-370 (1866); Jour. N. China branch Roy. Asiat. soc. (n. s.) 11 :
11-16 (1877); Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 25: 119-138 (1869), 27: 376-384 (1871); Nature
47: 30 (1892); Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 51: 238-254 (1895); also his Hydraulics of
great rivers flowing through alluvial plains, 1906.
4 Letter on the Province of Hunan, pp. 9-10 (1870); Peterm. Mitth. 17: 428 (1871);
Letter on the Provinces of Chili, Shansi, Shense, etc., pp. 13-18 (1872); Verh. geol.
Reichsanst. 1872 : 153-160; Zs. deut. geol. Gee. 25 : 760-763 (1873); Rept. Brit. Assoc.
1878, II: 86-87; China, vol. 1, pp. 56-189, vol. 2, pp. 349-351, 422-427, 530-533,
550-551, and 741-766 (1877); Geol. mag, (2) 9: 293-305 (1882). See also Schultz—
Himmel und Erde 8 : 379-384, 418-428 (1896).
«Geog. Zs. 1: 263-265, 282-285 (1895).
/Boll. Soc. geol. ital. 20: 311-338 (1901).
9 Ann. mines (9) 19: 412-429 (1901).
A Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 18: 127-138 (1902).
< Carnegie Inst, of Washington Pub. 54, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 183-196, 242-256 (1907).
iLyell— Edinb. New phil. jour. 17: 110-112 (1834), Antiquity of Man, chap. 16
(1863); Jentzsch— Zs. ges. Naturw. 40: 1-99 (1872); Richthofen— China, vol. 1.
chap. 5 (1877); Schumacher— Mitt. geol. Landesanst. Elsass-Lothr. 2 : 246-366(1888);
Wahnschaife— Ursachen dee Oberflachengestaltung, pp. 191-196 (1901); and further
literature cited in the bibliography under L. Agassiz, Andreae and Osann, d'Archiac,
Baltzer, Belt, Bennigsen-Fdrder, Bdmer, Braun, Chelius and Vogel, Courty and
Hamelin, Dammer, von Dechen, D ticker, Du Pasquier, Engelhard t, Fallou, Fellen-
berg, Florschutz, Fdrster, Foetterle, Frtth, Grund, Guembel, Gutzwiller, Hibbert,
Horusitsky, Inkey, Jenny, Jentzsch, Keilhack, Klockmann, Kloos, Koken,
Leppla, Makowsky, Mousson, Nehring, Nikitin, Penck, von Petrino, Ruhl, Sacco,
Sachsse and Becker, Sandberger, Sauer, Schre'ter, Schumacher, Steinmann, Stur,
Sturtz, Suess, Teech, Tietze, TutkovskH, Van Baren, Viglino and Capeder, Wahn-
schaffe, van Werveke, Wood, Wust, and Zeuschner.
*Murchison — Geology of Russia, vol. 1, pp. 561-562 (1845); Belt— Quart, jour.
Geol. soc. 33: 843-862 (1877); Armaahevskil— Geological sketch of the Chernigov
Govt. (Russian), pp. 212-223 (1884), General geological map of Russia, sheet 46, pp.
255-316 (1903); Hume— Geol. mag. (3) 9 : 549-561 (1892), (4) 1 : 303-307 (1894); Dokout-
chaieff— Bull. soc. beige geol. 6, Proc. verb.: 97-101 (1892); Capus— Compt. rend.
114: 958-960 (1892); TutkovskH— Zemlevfedlenle 1899: 213-311; Scott, geog.
mag. 16: 171-174 (1900); Pavlov— Bull. Soc. Imp. nat. Moscow (n. s.) 17: 23-30
(1903); Davis— Carnegie inst. of Washington Pub. 26: 58-63 (1905).
i The northern loess along the border of the ice sheet is described by Chamberlin
and Salisbury— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 6, II: 278-307 (1885); McGee— ibid., 11,
I: 291-303 (1891); and Leverett— U. S. Geol. surv. Monogr. 38: 153-184 (1899); etc..
The loess along the lower Mississippi is described by McGee— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol.
surv. 12, I: 392-394 (1891); and Mabry— Jour. geol. 6: 273-302 (1898); etc. The
128 MOVEMENT OF SOIL. MATERIAL. BY THE WIND.
sionally overlapping the border of the ice sheet and extending south-
ward along the present river valley. The adobe of the southwestern
part of the United States shows many similarities to loess, and the
pampas of South America, though as yet not fully investigated, are
probably in part of similar material. 6 In areas where it is well
developed the loess shows no dependence upon the underlying topog-
raphy, but covers hill and valley alike in a blanketlike layer, which,
it is true, varies in thickness, but according to vagaries of its own or
because of secondary denudation and not in relation to the basal
relief.
Soils derived from loessial deposits are everywhere among the most
fertile in the world. The productiveness of European loess regions
has often been noted, and von Hauer<* states that in Austria excep-
tional fertility is a sure indication that the soil is loessial. The
American loess is not less fertile/ and in China the loessial soils have
been cropped for 4,000 years without requiring the use of mineral
many other papers on the American loess are too numerous for review. Those known
to the writer (many of which are cited in the following pages) are given in the bib-
liography under Aughey, Bain, Beyer, Broadhead, Call, Calvin, Calvin and Bain,
Campbell, Chamberlin, Chamber lin and Salisbury, Fowke, Fuller and Clapp, C. H.
Gordon, C. W. Hall and F. W. Sardeson, Hershey, Hilgard, Keyes, Keyes and Call,
Knight, Leonard, Leverett, Lonsdale, Macbride, McGee, Newberry, Norton, Owen,
W. H. Pratt, Pumpelly, Savage, Shimek, Todd, Udden (Johan A., and Jon A.),
Upham, Webster, C. A. White, Wilder, Villcox, I. A. Williams, Winchell, Witter,
and Wright.
« I. C. Russell-Oeol. mag. (3) 6: 289-295, 342-350 (1889). Cf. Matthew's ideas
with regard to the present formation of "prairie loess' 1 by wind (Amer. nat. 33:
406-407 [1899]), and Haworth's suggestion regarding the assistance of the wind in
the formation of the "plains marl" (U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Sup. pap. 6: 34 [1897]).
6 On the Pampas Formation see Bravard — Geologfa de las Pampas, 1857; Bur-
meister — Ann. Museo Pub. Buenos Aires 1: 100-114 (1864-69); Ameghino — La for-
macidn pampeana, 1881; Stelzner — Beitrage Geologie Argentinischen Republik, vol.
2, p. 152 (1885); S. Roth— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 40: 375-464 (1888); Brackebusch—
Peterm. Mitt. 39: 157, 162(1893); Bodenbender-— ibid., pp. 231-237, 259-264; Stein-
mann— Mitt. bad. geol. Landesanst. 2: 121-123 (1893); N. O. G. Nordenskjdld—
Geol. foren. f6rh. 22: 191-206 (1900); Burkhardt^-Revista Mus. del Plata 14: 146-
171 (1907); Doering— ibid., pp. 172-190 (1907). Bravard believed it to be entirely
of eolian origin. Burmeister, Ameghino, Roth, Bodenbender, and Steinmann favor
an origin partially eolian and partially aqueous.
c Foetterle — Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 5:884 (1854); Guembel — Geognostische
Beschreibung des bayeriechen Alpengebirges und seines Vorlandes, p. 797 (1861);
Suess— Schrift. Ver. Verb, naturw. Kennt. 6: 347-348 (1865-66); Stur— Jahrb. geol.
Reichsanst. 19: 468, 482 (1869); Wahnschaffe— Abh. geol. Sp.-Karte Preussen 7:
79-81 (1885); Puchner— Vierteljahrech. bayr. Landw.-Rath Munich 8: 300-308(1903);
Halenke, Klingand Engels— ibid. 10: 448 (1905).
* Die Geologie der dsterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie, p. 639 (1875).
« Pumpelly— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 17: 135 (1879); Todd— Proc. Iowa hort. soc. 17:
263-270 (1882); Keyes— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 6: 302 (1898); Norton— Iowa Geol. surv.
16 : 393-394 (1905); Calvin— ibid. 17 : 5 (1906).
THE ORIGIN OF THE LOESS. 129
fertilizers.* The apparently extraordinary maintenance of full
fertility in the last case is, however, partially explained by the prevar
lent use of night soil, and even more largely by the habit of spreading
each year on fields located on the steps of the loess terraces fresh
material dug from the perpendicular face of the next higher terrace. 6
A certain amount of new soil material is thus regularly supplied. The
material supplied by the frequent dust storms is no doubt also a
factor in the maintenance of fertility; in fact, the beneficial action of
these storms is well known to the inhabitants both in China itself and
in Central Asia." The exceptional fertility of loessial soils in general
is, however, unquestioned and is doubtless to be ascribed in part to the
unusual degree of heterogeneity* entailed by their (partial) eolian
origin, but even more largely to the peculiarly good physical texture
which they always possess and which allows the free movement and
absorption of water, aids the maintenance of good tilth, and encour-
ages a proper sanitary condition in the soil.
THE ORIGIN OF THE LOESS.
The origin of the loess has long been, and to a certain extent still is,
a vexed question amongst geologists. The early theories (elaborated
with regard to the European loess) ascribed it to the action of great
floods following a sudden change of drainage or of sea level. The
loess, however, shows no traces of the rapidly moving streams which
must have accompanied such a cataclysm, and if aqueous in origin,
must have been laid down in still or nearly still waters. Bennigsen-
Forder' and Fallou* advocated a marine origin for the European
o Richthofen— Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1872 : 157, China, vol. 1, p. 70 (1877). See
also Obruchev— Geog. Zs. 1 : 284 (1895).
Mam indebted to Dr. Bailey Willie for calling my attention to this custom of the
Chinese agriculturists.
c See Johnson— Jour. Roy. geog. soc. 37: 5-6 (1867); Durand — Compt. rend. Assoc,
franc, avan. sci. 7: 476 (1878); Guppy— Nature 24: 126 (1881); Walther— Einleitung
in der Geologie als historische Wissenschaft, p. 575 (1894); Plumandon — Poussieres
atmoepheriques, p. 29 (1897); Chem. trade jour. 43: 398 (1908).
<Z Obruchev— -Geog. Zs. 1 : 284 (1895). Viglino found 54 mineral species in the loess
of Shansi (Boll. Soc. geol. ital. 20: 321 [1901]). See also the less complete mineralog-
ical analyses of the Strassburg loess by Schumacher (Erl. geol. Karte Strassburg, pp.
27-34 [1883]), of the Heidelberg loess by Andreae and Osann (Mitt. bad. geol. Landes-
anst. 2: 735-742 [1893]), and of the Piedmont loess by Viglino (Boll. Soc. geol. ital.
17: 83-84 [1898]).
e Hibbert — History of the extinct volcanos of the basin of Neuwied, pp. 183-204
(1832); Guembel — Geognostische Beschreibung des bayerischen Alpengebirges, pp.
798, 805, 852, 872 (1861); Suess— Schrift. Ver. Verb, naturw. Kennt. 6: 333-348
(1865-66). See also Howorth— Geol. mag. (2) 9: 9-18, 6&-80, 343-356 (1882), 10 1
206-215,381-384(1883).
/ Zs. deut. geol. Gee. 9: 457-463 (1857), 10: 215-221 (1858); Das nordeurop&ische
und besonders das vaterl&ndische Schwemmland, 1863.
g Neues. Jahrb. Min. 1867: 143-158. See also Prestwich— Phil. tens. A, 184:
919-025 (1894), Geol. mag. (4) 1 : 237-238 (1894).
63952°— Bull. 68—11-
130 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
deposit, and Kingsmill a has adopted this theory for the Chinese loess.
It is difficult, however, to explain by this means the fact that over
many areas, especially in North America and in China, an apparently
continuous and uniform sheet of loess is found at altitudes varying
amongst themselves by several (or in China, many) hundreds of feek
Nor are there any signs of ancient shore lines or beaches or of marine
fossils. These and other less weighty considerations have led to the
entire abandonment of the marine hypothesis, at least in application
to all loessial deposits of wide extent. There are, however, many
localities in which the minor features of the loess speak for some
manner of aqueous deposition, and the various forms of the lacustrine
and fluvial theories have continued to be held untir the present day.*
The controversies have been waged between, on the one hand, the ad-
herents of these theories, and on the other the followers of Richthofen"
. « .
o Quart, jour. Geol. boc. 27: 376-384 (1871). See also references cited on p. 127,
note c.
b Authors favoring the aqueous deposition of loess, probably in lakes or flooded
rivers, are: Lycll— Edinb. New phil. jour. 17: 110-122 (1834), Antiquity of Man,
chap. 6 (1863); Charpentier — Essai sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du Bassin
du Rh6ne, 1841; Collomb— Bull. soc. geol. France (2) 6: 492-499 (1849); Heer— Urwelt
der Schweiz, p. 521 (1865); Belt— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 20: 463-465 (1864), 30: 490-
498 (1874), 33: 843-862 (1877), Jour. sci. 7: 67-90 (1877); Louis Agassiz— Neues
Jahrb. Min. 1867: 676-680; Sandberger— Jour. Laudw. 17: 213-223 (1869), Verh.
med.-phyB. Ges. Wurzburg 14 : 125-140 O880); C. A. White— Report on the geological
survey of Iowa, vol. 1, pp. 103-117 (1870 x Engelhardt— Sitzungsb. Isis Dresden 1870:
136-141; Jentzsch— Zs. ges. Naturw. 40: 73-75 (1872), Schr. phys.-okon. Ges. K6nigs-
berg 18: 161-168 (1877), Verh. geol Reichsanst. 1877: 251-258; David— Journal de
mon troisieme voyage, vol. 1, p. 94 (1S75); C. H. II.— Ausland 51: 99-100 (1878);
Hilgard— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 18: 100-112(1879); Broadhead— ibid. 427-428 (1879);
Benecke and Cohen — Geogn. Beschrcibung Umgcbung Heidelberg, pp. 548-573 (1881);
Jas. Geikie— Prehistoric Europe, pp. 143-168 (1SS1); Call— Amer. nat. 16: 369-381,
542-5-19 (18*2); Wahnschaffe— Abh. geol Sp -K. Prcu.-. 7: 65 (18S5), Zr. dent. geol.
Ges. 38: 353-369 (1886), Jahrb. preuKs. Landesanst. 1889: 328-346; Jenny— Mitt,
naturf. Ges. Bern 1880: 115-154; Mills— Amer. geol. 3: 345-361 (1889); Leppla—
Bayer, geognost. Jahreeh. 1889: 176-187, Neues. Jahrb. Min. 1890, II: 194-198;
Upham— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 41: 33-52 (1891); Erens— Bull. Soc. beige geol. 5t
38-40 (1891); Dokoutchaieff— ibid. 6, Proc. verb.: 97-101 (1892); Hume-<jeol. mag.
(o) 9: 549-561 (1892); Todd— Rept. Missouri Geol. surv. 10: 111-217 (1896) and cor-
respondence with Herahey relating thereto in Science (n. s.) 5: 587-588, 695-696,
768-770, 993-994 (1897); Calvin— Iowa Geol. surv. 7: 89-90 (1896); Todd— Proc.
Iowa acad. sci. 5: 46-51 (1897); Hershey— Amer. geol. 25: 369-374 (1900); Upham—
ibid. 31 : 25-34 (1903) ; Winchell— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 14 : 133-152 (1903); Pavlov-
Bull. Soc. Imp. nat. Moscow (n. s.) 17: 23-30 (1903); Norton— Iowa Geol. surv. 16:
3S2-386 (1905); Owen— Amer. geol. 35: 291-300 (1905); Todd— Proc. Iowa acad.
sci. 13: 187-194 (1906); and the monographs of Chamberlin and Salisbury, McGee,
and Leverett cited on p. 127, noted.
c Loci citati on p. 127, note d, especially Geol. mag. (2) 9: 293-305 (1882), Verh.
geol. Reichsanst. 1878: 289-296, and Fiihrer fur Forechungsreisende, pp. 477-481
(1SS6). The eolian theory has been accepted by Tietze — Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 27 :
347-350 (1877), Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1878: 113-119, 1881: 37^0, Jahrb. geol.
Reichsanst. 32: 118-132 (1882); Inkey— FOldtani Kdzlony 8: 15-26 (1878); Pum-
THE ORIGIN 07 THB LOESS. 181
in his brilliant hypothesis, elaborated with regard to the Chinese loess,
which considered it of eolian origin and composed of material carried
by the prevailing winds from the dry steppe and desert regions to the
west and deposited in its present position both because of loss of
wind velocity, due to meteorological determinants, and because of
entanglement in the vegetation with which the growing surface is
supposed to have been covered. Both the aqueous and eolian
theories have some facts in their favor and some in opposition; each
has been, and is, held by eminent authorities, and each will require
somewhat full consideration.
As a preliminary to such consideration, it may be well to point out
that there are really two problems of the loess — a problem of origin
of material and a problem of deposition. The loess is composed of
very finely comminuted and very uniform material. This must have
been the product of some extensive and remarkably efficient disin-
tegrating process, which may conceivably have been aqueous, sub-
aerial, or glacial. Whatever may have been the ultimate source of
this material it was probably not produced at the place where it is
now found, and search must therefore be made for the agent or agents
by which it was transported. These again may have been fluvial,
eolian, or glacial. With the source and means of supply fully deter-
pelly— Nation 26: 231-232, 243-244 (1878), Amer. jour. sci. (3) 17: 133-144 (1879);
Nehring— Globus 37: 10-11 (1880); Dttcker— Verh. naturh. Ver. preuas. Rheinl.
Westf. 39: 234-235 (1882), 40: .310-311, 423-425 (1883); Hilber— Jahrb. geol.
Reichsanst, 32: 193-330 (1882); Nehring— Geol. mag. (2) 10: 51-S8 (1883); Mtthl-
berg— Progr. Aargau. Kantonschule (1885); Jentzsch — Jahrb. preues. geol. Landes-
anst. 1884: 522-524; Makowsky— Verh. naturf. Ver. Brunn 26, Abh.: 213-215
(1887); Mushketov— Fizkheskaft geol., vol. 2, pp. 103-108 (1888); Adolf Saner— Zs
Naturwiss. 62: 320-351 (1889), Neues Jahrb. Min. 1890, II : 92-97, Jahresh. Ver
vaterl. Naturk. 57: cvi-cx (1901); Alfred Sauer— Globus 59: 24-29 (1891); Shimek—
loci citati in bibliography; Klemm— Notizbl. Ver. Erdk. Darmstadt 1892 : 33-33
Steinmann — Mitt. bad. geol. Landesanst. 2: 120-125 (1893); Andreae and Osann —
ibid., pp. 735-742(1893); Florechutz— Jahrb. naesau. Ver. Naturk. 47: 123-133 (1894)
Gutzwiller— Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel 10: 678-679 (1895), 13: 271-286 (1901); Obru
chev— Geog. Zs. 1: 282-285 (1895); Krishtafovich— Post-tertiary deposits of Nova
Alexandria (Russian), pp. 40-44 (1896)'; Udden— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 9: 6-9 (1898)
Iowa Geol. surv. 11: 265-266 (1900); Viglino— Boll. Soc. geol. ital. 17: 81-84 (1898)
20: 311-338 (1901); Keyes— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 6: 299-304 (1898); Horusitzky—
Fdldtani K6zl6ny 28: 109-113 (1898); Sachsse and Becker— Land w. Vere.-Stat. 38:
433 (1898); Sardeson— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 7: 58-60 (1899); C. W. Hall and Sardeson—
Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 349-360 (1899); Wilder— Iowa Geol. surv. 10: 120-122,
145-147 (1899); Frllh— Eel. geol. helv. 6: 53-59 (1899), Vierteljs. naturf. Ges. Zurich
44: 157-191 (1899), 48: 430-439 (1904); Keilhack— Prometheus 10: 241-246, 263-
267, 275-279 (1899); Leprince-Ringuet— Ann. Mines (9) 19: 368-382, 42P-429 (1901);
Savage— Iowa Geol. surv. 12: 294 (1901), 13: 242-243 (1902), 15: 529-531 (1904),
16: 637-639 (1905); Calvin— ibid. 13: 70 (1902), 16: 130 (1905); Beyer and Wil-
liams— ibid. 14: 51(1903); Leonard— ibid. 16: 287(1905); Penck— Naturw. Wochens.
20: 593-597 (1905); Grand— SitzungBb. Eaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 115, I: 550-551
(1906); Lozinslri— Jahrb. geol. ReichsanBt. 57: 375-383 (1907); and others.
182 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
mined, there remains the problem of deposition, perhaps still more
difficult of solution. What were the conditions which enabled the
laying down of the supplied silt in a deposit so characteristic and so
widespread as the loess ?
It is, of course, obvious that the agents of supply and of deposition
need not have been the same. The debris of secular rock decay may
have been sorted and carried by the wind and the finer silt dropped
into lakes where the deposit was being formed. Or the silt may
have been carried by flooded rivers, deposited on their flood-plains,
dried, and blown away to the areas of accumulation. Or, even more
complexly, rock flour produced by glacial grinding may have been
spread out on the marginal plains or left behind by the retreating ice
and redistributed and deposited by either wind or water or both.
Any particular deposit of loess, instead of being the product of the
action of water, wind, or ice, may conceivably have been formed by
any pair of them or by all three acting either simultaneously or in
succession.
It is also well to note that whatever may be the uncertainties as
to the agent or agents of loess production, the chronology of the forma-
tion is fairly well fixed. Innumerable indications connect it with the
glacial period and probably with the stages of retreat or decay of the
ice sheet. These indications are clearer and more certain in North
America than elsewhere, but are also unmistakable in Europe and
probably not less apparent in China, though in the latter country the
detailed investigation of Pleistocene geology is still in its infancy.
The evidence includes not only the position of the loess in the strati-
graphic series, but the parallelism (in North America) of the belt in
which it is developed with the margin of the ice sheet and the not
infrequent interstratification of loess with marginal drift and till of
undoubted glacial origin. It seems very probable that there were
several subperiods of loess formation all lying within the glacial epoch
and each related to one of the successive periods of retreat of the ice
sheet. That the American loess was deposited at the time of glacial
retreat is believed by the authors of the three most thorough and
aWinchell — Ann. Rept. Geol. nat. hist. surv. Minn. 6: 105 (1878), Amer. geol.
31: 279-282 (1903), Bull. Geol. boc. Amer. 14: 141-142(1903); McGee— Proc. Amer.
assoc. adv. sci. 27: 198-202 (1878), Bull. Phil. boc. Wash. 6: 93-97 (1883), Ann.
rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 11, 1:435-471 (1891); Chamberlin and Salisbury — Ann. rept.
U. S. Geol. surv. 6, I: 287 (1885); Todd and Bain— Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 2: 20-23
(1894); Bain—Iowa Geol. surv. 5: 283-284 (1895), 7: 342-343 (1896), 9: 89-91
(1898); Hershey— Amer. geol. 17: 294-298 (1896); Leonard— Iowa Geol. surv. 8:
87 (1897) ; Beyer— Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 6: 117-121 (1898); Shimek— Bull. Geol. soc.
Amer. 16: 589 (1906); and other references given by M. L. Fuller and Clapp — Bull.
Geol. soc. Amer. 14: 174-176 (1903).
THE ORIGIN OF THE LOESS. 133
comprehensive works dealing with the region in question, and this
opinion has been generally accepted by geologists. Its validity, how-
ever, is as a general principle only, for there are undoubtedly occa-
sional deposits of loess of secondary, and perhaps of primary, origin
which are much later in date.
Turning now to a consideration of the evidence behind the eolian
and the aqueous hypotheses, respectively, it will be advisable to dis-
cuss first the manner of deposition, as it is this which is largely respon-
sible for the peculiarities of the deposit and because it is over this
problem rather than over the problem of source that the controversies
have been waged. Postponing until later the mention of those
instances in which loessial material is now accumulating by whatever
agency, it is found that the most important single item of evidence in
favor of the eolian hypothesis is the terrestrial character of the
loessial fauna. The occurrences of other than land fossils are sporadic
and perhaps adventitious, and there can be no question that the vast
majority of the organic remains of the loess are those of animals which
lived altogether on land. The mere presence of land-shells in fluvial,
lacustrine, or marine deposits is of course nothing extraordinary, but
the absence of aqueous forms from fossiliferous strata of such origin
would be very remarkable indeed. It is not the occurrence of ter-
restrial forms but the nonoccurrence of any others that seems to
favor so strongly the deposition of the loess over a dry land surface.
Some advocates of the aqueous hypothesis have endeavored to
explain the character of the loessial fossils by assuming that they are
not contemporaneous with the loess, but have reached their position
therein by secondary movements of the material; by falling into
cracks or animal burrows from the present surface, etc. 6 Such phe-
nomena can hardly be of very general occurrence, and in any event
they could explain only the presence of terrestrial forms and not the
absence of the aqueous (unless the original deposit be assumed totally
nonf ossiferous). More plausible is the suggestion that the aqueous
o Namely: Chamberlin and Salisbury — The driftless area of the Upper Mississippi,
Ann.rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 6, I, especially pp. 305-306 (1885); McGee— The Pleisto-
cene history of Northeastern Iowa, Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 11, I, especially p.
462 (1891); Leverett— The Illinois Glacial lobe, U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 38, espe-
cially pp. 176-177 (1899). See also Todd— Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 1876-80: 19; Cal-
vin—Iowa Geol. surv. 7: 88-90 (1896), Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 118-120 (1899);
Bain— Iowa Geol. surv. 7: 342-343, 463-466 (1896), 9: 91-92 (1898); Savage— ibid.
13: 242 (1902), 16: 637 (1905); Leverett— Amer. geol. 33: 56-57 (1904); I. A. Wil-
liams—Iowa Geol. surv. 15: 326-327 (1904); Leonard— ibid. 16: 287 (1905); Norton—
ibid. 16: 386 (1905).
* Kingsmill— Quart, jour. Geol. eoc. 27: 379-380 (1871); Cheliue— Notizbl. Ver.
Erdk. Darmstadt 1892: 21-23; Todd— Proc. Iowa acad. eci. 13: 192 (1906). For
opposing opinion see Shimek— ibid. 14: 237-256 (1907).
134 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BT THE WIND.
deposition may have been intermittent — as on the flood-plains of
rivers — and that in the intervals of no deposition and of exposure to
the air the fauna driven out (or perhaps up the stalks of plants) by
the inundation had time to return and repopulate the area, providing
potential fossils for the next period of deposition. It is probable
that this explanation is valid in certain cases, but it is hard to see how
intermittent deposition of this character could take place without
leaving distinct traces of stratification or lamination, and such traces
are by no means general in the American loess and are very rare in
that of China.
This absence of stratification, the great uniformity of the deposit,
and in general the lack of the traces of water action so characteristic
of ordinary sedimentary deposits is in itself another strong argument
for the eolian hypothesis. It is possible that material deposited in
permanent and nearly currentless lakes or in very sluggish rivers
might show no traces of water action, but such material, if fossil-
iferous at all, should show a fresh water fauna with only occasional
terrestrial examples. Continuous aqueous deposition can not explain
the terrestrial fauna, and intermittent flood-plain deposition is prob-
ably inconsistent with the absence of stratification and other traces
of water action.
On the other hand, the aqueous hypothesis is favored by the
unmistakable relation of much loess, especially in North America, to
the stream valleys. 6 This is true not alone in horizontal but also in
vertical projection. The belt of loess is not only more or less parallel
to the stream, but is often thicker near its banks, forming a natural
levee and indicating deposition from flood waters flowing outward
from the channel and rapidly losing their load because of loss of
velocity and by entanglement in vegetation. This process has been
observed along the course of all overloaded rivers through their flood
plains and has usually, and probably rightly, been assumed character-
istic of such conditions. Shimek c has urged, however, that even
eolian loess would be thicker along stream courses because there the
vegetation would be more extensive, more vigorous, and more per-
manent, and consequently more dust would be entangled and
retained.*
ojentzsch— Zs. ges. Naturw. 40: 1-99, especially 73-75 (1872); Sandberger — Verh.
med.-phys. Ges. Wurzburgl4: 125-140 (1880); Winchell— Bull. Geol. eoc. Amer. 14:
145-146 (1903).
& ChamberliD— Jour. geol. 5 : 795-802 (1897).
cBull. Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 5: 319 (1904).
d An actual occurrence of this sort is described from Central Asia by Przhevalskfl
(Kulja to Lob Nor, p. 57 [1879]). Cf. also the suggestion of Savage (Iowa Geol. surv.
15 : 531 [1904]) that the thicker deposits along riven may be due to the blowing of
dust from dried river ban and flats.
THE ORIGIN OF THE LOESS. 135
A more certain indication of aqueous deposition is the undoubted
presence in some occurrences of loess of well-developed strata, and
intergradations of finer and coarser material, which appearances can
be ascribed to nothing else than deposition from water. These strata
can by no stretch of the imagination be considered similar to the
false bedding of eolian sands, and the evidence is perfectly conclusive
for those deposits from which it has been obtained.
These apparently contradictory conclusions can be reconciled only
by the obvious deduction that the manner of deposition of the loess
was not everywhere the same. There is both eolian loess and aqueous
loess, and it is quite conceivable that there is loess which is both
aqueous and eolian. Loess is no more a specific thing than is sand-
stone, or shale, or conglomerate; and as there are sandstones which
have been formed from dunes, or by rivers, or in the sea, so there are
1 'loesses" which are eolian, or fluvial, or (perhaps) marine. "The
time for generalization as to origin of the loess as a whole from obser-
vations in a single region appears to have passed, and the origin in
each locality is best decided for itself by its own internal or physio-
graphic evidence." 6
* Hilgard — Report on the Geology and Agriculture of Mississippi, pp. 194-197 (I860),
Amer. jour. sci. (3) 18: 106-112 (1879); Hayden— Rept. Geol. eurv. Terr. 1: 10, 12,
18, 19 (1867); Safford— Geology of Tennessee, pp. 114, 433-134 (1869); Jentzsch—
Schr. phys.-ftkon. Gee. K6nigsberg 18: 163-164 (1877); Todd— Proc. Amer. assoc.
adv. sci. 26: 287-291 (1877), 27: 231-239 (1878), Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 5: 46-61
(1897), U. S. Geol. eurv. Bull. 158: 65-68 (1899); Broadhead— Amer. jour. sci. (3)
18: 427-428 (1879); Schumacher— Erl. geol. Karte Umgeb. Strasbourg, pp. 13-19
(1883); Chamberlin and Salisbury— Rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 6, I: 281, 283-284,
287 (1886); Uhlig— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 34: 212 (1884); Witter— Proc. Iowa acad.
eci. 1: 45 (1890); McGee— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 11, I: 445-446, 469-470,
et al. (1891); Kloos— Zs. deut. geol. Gee. 44: 327-328 (1892); Leverett— Amer. geol.
10: 18-24 (1892), Rept. 111. Board World's Fair Com., pp. 82-83 (1895), U. S. Geol.
eurv. Monogr. 38: 156-184 (1899); Whitney— Rept. 111. Board World's Fair Comm.,
p. 101 (1895); Shimek— Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 3: 82-89 (1895); Norton— Iowa Geol.
Burv.4: 173(1894),9: 485(1898), 16: 377(1905); Beyer— ibid. 7: 235(1896); Bain—
ibid. 7: 341 (1896); Calvin— ibid. 8: 174(1897); Chamberlin—Jour. geol. 5: 795-802
(1897); Frtih— Vierteljahrech. naturf. Ges. Zurich 44: 172(1899); Hershey— Amer.
geol. 25: 369-374(1900); M.L. Fuller and Clapp— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 14: 153-176
(1903); Winchell— ibid. 14: 143-145 (1903); Beyer and Young— Iowa Geol. surv.
13: 380 (1902); Darton— U. S. Geol. surv. Prof. pap. 17: 15-16 (1903); Wright—
Amer. geol. 33: 205-222 (1904), 35: 236-240(1905); Owen— ibid . 33 : 223-228(1904).
On stratified loess in China see: Wright— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 13: 132 (1902); and
in Turkestan see Capus— Compt. rend. 114: 959 (1892).
bM. L. Fuller and Clapp— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 14: 174 (1903). The action of
both wind and water in loess formation has been recognized by Richthofen himself
(Rept. Brit. Assoc. 1873, II: 86-87, Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1878: 289-296); by
Chamberlin and Salisbury, McGee, and Leverett in the monographs cited on p. 133,
note a; and by Jentzsch — Schr. phys.-dkon. Ges. Konigsberg 18: 167 (1877), Verh.
geol. Reichsanst. 1877: 258; Tietze— ibid., p. 264; Nehring— ibid. 1878: 261-272,
Tundren und Steppen, pp. 217-221 (1890); Call— Amer. nat. 16: 369-381, 542-
186 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
All this concerns mainly the agent or agents by which the loessial
material was deposited. A word now as to the source of the material
itself. It would seem that only in two ways could such a large
amount of finely comminuted debris have been produced — either by
long-continued secular decay of the rock with accompanying removal
of the d6bris, or by the grinding of moving ice. In either case the
material has undoubtedly undergone a remarkably efficient sorting
process either by wind or water or by both. With regard to the
American deposits the weight of evidence and opinion seems to favor
the conclusion that the loessial material is probably rock flour from
under the ice sheet. The physical properties of the loessial grains
are quite consistent with such an origin, and it is known that much
material was prepared and supplied in this way. It is by no means
necessary, however, to assume that glacial debris is the exclusive
material of the formation. Insolation and rock decay are now
very active in the drier region west and southwest of the loess-
covered areas, and were probably not less so in the past. It is pos-
sible that much dust thus formed has been removed by the wind
from these regions and carried into the regions of loessial deposition.
Thus with regard to source of materials, as with regard to manner of
deposition, not all loessial deposits are the same, and perhaps not all
the materials of any one deposit are the same. There is no known
criterion which will enable the distinguishing of glacial silt from silt
formed by rock decay (especially insolational decay) ; nor is the com-
pleteness of the sorting any indication of the nature of the elutriating
agent, for water and wind, though different in action, are equally
649 (1882); von Lasaulx— Encyc. Naturw., Abt. II, Is 78 (1882); Penck— Arch.
Anthropol. 15: 222-225 (1884); Fellenberg— Mitth. naturf. Gee. Bern 1885: 34-43;
Rzehak— Sitzungsb. naturf. Ver. Brunn 26: 34 (1887); Schumacher— Mitth. geol.
Landesanst. Elsass-Loth. 2: 314-366 (1888-90); Nikitin— Bull. Com. geol. St. Peters-
burg 5: 133-185 (1886); Du Paaquier— Beitr. geol. Karte Schweiz 31: 57 (1891);
Chelius and Vogel— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1891, 1: 104-107; Hume— Geol. mag. (3) 9:
557-561 (1892), (4) 1: 303-307 (1894); Capus— Compt. rend. 114: 958-960 (1892);
Steinmann — Mitt. bad. geol. Landesanst. 2: 745-791 (1893), Verh. deut. geol. Gee.
50: 88-98 (1899); Tutkovskfl— Ann. geol. min. Russie 2, I: 60-63 (1896), 3, 1: 117
(1898), 4, I: 108-109 (1899); Chamberlin-Jour. geol. 5: 795-802 (1897); Keilhack—
PrometheuB 10: 278 (1899); Sauer— Jahresh. Ver. vaterl. Naturk. 57: cvi-cx (1901);
Gutzwiller— Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel 13: 271-286(1901); Wrights-Quart, jour. Geol.
soc. 57: 245 (1901), Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 13: 127-138 (1902); Krishtafovich—
Verh. Imp. min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 40 Protokol: 98-100 (1903); Todd— Proc.
Iowa acad. sci. 13: 187-194 (1906); Willis— Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 54,
vol. 1, part 1: 245-249 (1907); Stttrtz— Verh. naturh. Ver. preuss. Rheinl. Westf. 64:
84-85 (1907); and others. M. L. Fuller and Clapp (Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 14: 153-
176 [1903]) have worked out in a most interesting way the conditions in the Wabash
Valley and shown that in this locality there are two general types of the loessial for-
mation, one of which is mainly eolian, the other mainly aqueous.
©See, for example, Chamberlin and Salisbury— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 6,
I: 287, 304-305 (1885).
THE ORIGIN OF THE LOESS, 187
efficacious in this regard and give equally perfect results. The grains
of loeife are usually angular, but this condition is a property of insola-
tional and glacial silts alike, and is consistent with either aqueous or
eolian transport, for by either agent material so fine as the loess is
carried in a nearly permanent suspension and undergoes but little
abrasion.
The decision as to source must therefore rest upon external and
not internal evidence, upon the general geologic indications as to
probable areas, and agents of supply. It is for this reason that the
hypothesis of predominantly glacial origin is preferred in the case of
the North American loessial materials. The existence and operation
of the glacial grinding mill is a known fact, while it is difficult to
locate on the North American continent any areas of deflational
removal sufficiently extensive and subject to sufficiently rapid degra-
dation to provide the enormous mass of material which exists. In
China the conditions are reversed, and there it is the glaciers which
are apparently lacking, 6 while a very extensive area of eolian removal
is still to be seen in the dry region in and contiguous to the Desert of
Gobi. It is therefore probable that Pumpelly c is correct in his con-
clusion that the materials of the Chinese loess are mostly the aerially
transported d6bris of central Asian rock decay and only in very small
proportion the silt of glaciers. The European loess, like the American,
is probably largely glacial, though it would be unwarrantable to alto-
gether exclude silts of other origin.
In a very general way, then, the primary American deposits of
loess may be considered as made up mostly of glacial silt, but partly
of wind-borne rock d6bris from the arid regions to the west, these
two materials, separate or mixed, having been collected or deposited
either by eolian action, or on the flood-plains of great but sluggish
a Climatic conditions were probably quite different during Glacial time, and it is
possible that arid areas of deflational removal were then more numerous or more
extensive than to-day. It has, in fact, been suggested on meteorologic grounds that
the presence of the ice sheet would in itself cause the prevalence of aridity over cer-
tain contiguous or neighboring areas and that these areas might have been the places of
origin of the loessial material. On these matters, see Nehring — Sitzungsb. Ges.
Naturfr. 1889: 189-196, and flber Tundren und Steppen (1890), Globus 65: 365-370
(1894); Jamieson— Geol. mag. (3) "7: 70-73 (1890); Reid— Bull. Soc. beige geol.
7,Proc.verb.: 193-198(1893); Krause— Globus 65 : 1-6(1894); Geikie— Scott, geog.
mag. 14: 281-294, 346-357 (1898); TutkovBkfl— ibid. 16: 171-174 (1900); Sauer—
Jahresh. Ver. vaterl. Naturk. 57: cvi-cx (1901); Vahl— Geog. tids. 16: 173-183
(1902); Penck— Res. scient. Cong, intern, bot. 1905: 12-24, Geog. jour. 27: 182-
187 (1906); Grand— Sitzungsb. Kaiser 1. Akad. Wise. Vienna 115: 551 (1906);
Romer— Verh . geol . Reichsanst . 1907 : 48-55 ; Lozinski— Jahrb . geol . Reichsanst . 57 :
375-383 (1907); Jentzsch— Monatsb. deut. geol. Ges. 1908: 120-123; and the further
literature cited by these authorities.
b Wright— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 13: 127-138 (1902).
•Amer. jour. sci. (3) 17: 133-144 (1879).
138 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
rivers, or perhaps in more or less permanent shallow lakes. It is
possible that in certain isolated localities deposits of loessial character
may owe their existence to rain wash,* to the sea, or to other complex
and unusual factors, b but such cases are uncommon, and even lacus-
trine deposition was probably quite rare, being apparently excluded
(as already described) by the character of the fossil fauna. Most
American loess is probably either wind-deposited or laid down by
the intermittent floods of muddy rivers.
The determination of the exact origin of any particular deposit of
loess must await the careful survey of its physical, geographical, and
geological characteristics, and in the lack of such detailed and accu-
rate surveys of the loessial areas it is manifestly impossible to say
how much of the work of loess formation in general was done by
water and how much by wind. Estimates based on the meager data
at present available could have no worth whatever. It is probable,
however, that the loess over many areas is predominantly or exclu-
sively eolian,* and the loessial materials are so readily susceptible to
wind action that even in other areas it seems not improbable that
loess with which the eolian agencies have had nothing at all to do is a rare
exception. Some loess is altogether wind-formed and all loess is
probably somewhat wind-formed.
As a possible suggestion toward an explanation of the mechanism
by which glacial silt may have been distributed and deposited by the
wind, mention should be made of the fact noted by many writers,
and with especial clearness by Tutkovskfl* that the retreating ice
sheet would be bordered by a vegetationless and exposed area cov-
ered with disintegrated material and probably subject to the maxi-
mal tzer—Mitth. naturw. Ges. Bern 1885, III: 124-127; Sacco— Bull. Soc. geol.
Prance (3) 16: 229-243 (1887); Koken— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1900, II: 167-169; de Lap-
parent— Bull, aoc. geol. France (3) 13: 45G-161 (1885), Traits de geol., 4th ed., pp.
1610-1611 (1900). Jenney (School of Mines quart. 10: 316-318 [1889]) has observed a
loesslike deposit formed by the rain wash of mountain silt into the dry lake basins of
the arid west. On deposits of loess formed by rain wash in southern Russia and
Turkestan, see Armashevskil— Mem. Soc. nat. Kiev 7: 212-223 (1884), ibid. 15 Proc.-
verb. : lv, lxxviii (1896); and Capus— Compt. rend. 114 : 958-960 (1892). The adobe,
as already mentioned, is quite similar to loess and has probably been formed by
the joint action of rain wash and wind. See Russell — Geol. mag. (3) 6: 289-295,
342-350(1889).
b As, for instance, the flow of saturated soil, especially after thawing, as advocated
by Wood— Geol. mag. (2) 9: 339-343, 411-416 (1882), 10: 389-397 (1883). On
secondary slipping of loess, see also Todd — Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 18: 192 (1906),
Geol. Atlas U. S., folio 156: 3 (1908).
c The occurrence in the loess of sand-polished bowlders as observed by Wilder (Iowa
Geol. surv. 10: 120-122 [1899]), or of sand-masses showing eolian cross-bedding as
observed by Calvin (ibid. 11 : 444-446 [1900]), furnishes a nearly perfect proof that
the wind had much to do with the genesis of those particular deposits, at least.
<*See the exposition of his views in the Scott, geog. mag. 16: 171-174 (1900). See
also Lozinski— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 57 : 375-380 (1907).
THE ORIGIN OP THE LOESS. 139
mum of eolian action. From this "zone of deflation" dust would be
carried outward into what Tutkovskil calls the "zone of inflation/'
or of accumulation lying farther away from the glacial border.
Udden's a suggestion of the possibility of loess accumulation in the
great snow field or neve which probably fringed the ice sheet may
also have its place in a complete theory of the loess, though Davi-
son's b idea that all loess was deposited in snow drifts is certainly
extreme and untenable.
The features of the formation in Europe are probably not essen-
tially different from those in North America, e but' in China it seems
that the share of the wind in loess formation has probably been much
greater, especially (as already indicated) in the transportation of the
material from the region of production in central Asia to the locali-
ties where it is now found. The geographical positions of the areas
of loess accumulation may have been in part determined by the
vegetation there growing which entangled and retained the dust, but
are more likely to have been fixed by meteorological factors con-
trolling the path and strength of the dust-bearing winds and espe-
cially the areas over which they habitually decreased in velocity and
began to deposit their load.
Neither the action of the wind nor that of water on the loessial
material has stopped with the primary deposition. Being in most
localities a surface deposit, the formation has been much moved and
removed, and sorted and resorted by winds and rains and streams.
Thus there have been produced many secondary deposits of loess,
some of them clearly wind-formed, some just as clearly the product
of stream action, and some in which the agent or agents of rearrange-
ment are recognizable only with difficulty if at all. These secondary
rearrangements have not stopped with the beginning of the present
era but are still continuing, and there are indeed deposits apparently
of primary character which are still increasing under the action of
wind or water, or both. Thus rivers like the Nile, the Mississippi,
the Ganges, the Po, the rivers of eastern China, and others which
periodical^ pour muddy floods over their alluvial plains are in this
way depositing flood-plain loess/* while the present-day activity of
the eolian agencies is instanced by the observations of Shaler* on
the blown loessial deposits along the streams in the arid portions
o Jour. geol. 10: 250-251 (1902).
* Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 50: 472-487 (1894).
cThe European conditions are summarized by Richthofen — China, vol. 1, pp. 153-
173 [1877]. For occurrences of undoubted eolian loess in Germany, see Sauer and
Siegert— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 40: 580 (1888); Sauer— Zs. NaturwisB. 62: 326-351
(1889); and the authors cited on p. 130, note c.
& On the present-day deposition of loess by small streams see Todd — Proc. Iowa
acad. sci. 14: 257-266 (1907).
'Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 245-252 (1899).
140 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
of Montana; of Beyer a on the continual accumulation of dust on
top of the stream-valley bluffs of Iowa; of Keyes 6 and of Shimek c
on the recent loess formed of dust blown from the flats of the Mis-
souri River; and of Matthew d and of Reagan c on the present forma-
tion of eolian loess on the Great Plains and in New Mexico, respec-
tively.
In China and Central Asia the accumulation of eolian loess at
the present time and within the historic past has been observed by
Richthofen/ L6czy,* Obruchev,* Hedin,* Ivchenko,' Huntington,*
R. W. Pumpelly, 1 ' and Stein. w Recent eolian deposits of loesslike
material have been described by Stur n from the high Alps, by
Virlet d'Aoust from the Mexican highlands, by Thoroddsen* from
Iceland, by Tietze from Persia,* by Lyons' and Grund * from cer>
tain parts of the Sahara, by Philippi' from South Africa, and by
Hundhausen* from New Zealand. Van den Broeck ascribes an
eolian origin to the loesslike loam ("limon hesbayen 11 ) of Belgium.
The dust storms of 1887-1888 in Saxony produced deposits of loess-
like material in some places as much as 3 or 4 centimeters thick.*
The resorting of old loess by the wind is also very common in
loess regions and has been observed in China by Wright x and by
oProc. Iowa acad. sci. 6: 117-121 (1899).
& Amer. jour. sci. (4) 6: 299-304 (1898).
clowa Geol. but v. 13: 174-175 (1902). Of. Amer. geol. 3: 397-399 (1889); and
G. G. Hopkins and Petti t— 111. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 123: 238 (1908).
* Amer. Nat. 33: 406-407 (1899).
« Science (n. s.) 28: 653 (1908).
/China, vol. 1, p. 150-151 (1877).
ffReise dea Grafen Szechenyi, vol. 1, p. 421 (1893).
* Verh. Imp. min. Ges. St. Petersburg (2) 33: 263-269 (1895).
i Scientific results, vol. 1, pp. 291-293 (1904).
i Ann. geol. min. Russ. 7, 1: 221-222 (1904).
* Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 18 : 359-360 (1907), Pulse of Asia, pp. 91, 103, 134-135,
156-157 (1907).
1 Carnegie Inst, of Washington Pub. 73, vol.- 2 : 271 et al. (1908).
» Geog. jour. 34: 13, 14 (1909).
"Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1872: 185.
'Bull. Soc. geol. France (2) 15: 129-139 (1857); Compt. rend. Soc. geog. Paris
1885: 464-466. See also Meunier— La Nature 2, II: 26-27 (1874).
PPeterm. Mitt. 31: 338 (1885).
fJahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 27: 348 (1877), 31: 80-85 (1881).
' Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 50: 537 (1894).
'Sitzungsb. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 115: 545, 549, 551 (1906).
'Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 56, Monatsb. 66: (1904).
« Globus 90: 47(1906).
'Bull. Soc. beige geol. 1, Proc.-verb.: 151-159 (1887), 2, Proc.-verb.: 188-192
(1888).
« Sauer and Siegert— Ze. deut. geol. Ges. 40: 575-582 (1888). See p. 102 above.
'Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 13: 127-138 (1902).
EOLIAN ACTION DURING PRE-PLEISTOCENB TIME. 141
Skertchly and Kingsmill, in southeastern Russia by Hume, 6 and in
the Mississippi Valley by Todd, c Williams,* and Savage.*
EOLIAN ACTION DURING PBE-FLEISTOOENE TIME.
Though there is no reason to believe that the wind has been gener-
ally less active in the past than it is to-day, very few formations
possessing unmistakable indications of eolian origin are known in the
stratigraphic series. This rarity is probably in some measure appar-
ent and due to specific search not having been made for signs of
wind action, but it is no doubt largely real and indicative of an actual
lack of wind-formed strata. Some such lack is to be expected. The
sea is par excellence the place for strata building and the majority
of preserved deposits are naturally marine. As already explained,
eolian action does not in general lead to the formation of character-
istic and recognizable accumulations, and in the comparatively rare
cases in which such are produced they are subject to rapid subaerial
denudation, and have a far less than normal expectancy of being
preserved as a part of the geologic column. Further, the recognition
of eolian origin is so largely dependent upon external and evanescent
criteria to which the internal characteristics of the strata offer so
little assistance, that the indications of wind action must have been
very clear and striking, to have survived the various metamorphic
changes which accompany consolidation and lithification.
Such loessial deposits as may have been formed in periods previous
to the last ice invasion have probably been either entirely removed
by the denuding agencies or else so completely altered by processes
of induration and metamorphism as to render impossible any recog-
nition of the manner of origin. It is apparent from the previous
pages that even in the deposits of this character belonging to the
present era the criteria of eolian or of aqueous origin, particularly
such of these criteria as depend upon internal evidence alone, are
by no means unmistakable.
Dune sands have, however, certain characteristics, such as great
purity and uniformity, perfect rounding of the grains, irregular false
bedding/ eolian ripple marks, etc., which are likely to persist through
« Quart, jour. Geol. boc. 51; 238-254 (1895).
&Geol. mag. (3) 9: 549-561 (1892).
«Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 1875-80: 21.
<«Iowa Geol. surv. 16: 497 (1905).
«Ibid. 16: 638-639 (1905). Cf. the eolian resorting of river-deposited silt in
Khotan (Stein — Ancient Khotan, pp. 124-125, 198, and Appendix G [by L6ozy],
1907).
/See: Tietze — Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1877: 265; Briart — Bull. Soc. geol. France
(3) 8: 586-591 (1880); Reade— Geol. Mag. (2) 8: 197-198 (1881); Tenison-
Woods— Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. N. S.Wales 16: 53-88 (1882); Grabau— Science (n.s.)
25 x 296 (1907). The characters and occurrences of the various kinds of stratification
which are possible in eolian deposits have been well discussed by Ivchenko — Ann.
geol. min. Ruaeie 10, I: 18-27 (1908).
142 MOVEMENT OF SOIL, MATEBIAL BY THE WIND.
ordinary metamorphic changes; and it has therefore happened that,
partly on such internal evidence and partly on general geologic data,
certain formations have been more or less perfectly identified as
formed by the consolidation of masses of drifting sand. Among the
best examples of such fossilized dune complexes are the Saint Peter
and the Sylvania sandstones of the northern Mississippi Valley, the
former of which is believed by Berkey a to be the result of the joint
action of wind and wave along the sandy coast of a slowly retreating
arm of the sea; while the latter, according to Grabau and Sherzer,*
represents sands weathered from previous sandstone rocks (possibly
the Saint Peter itself) and much drifted and arranged by the wind.
On account of its history of long attrition and assorting, partly by
water but especially by wind, the Sylvania possesses to a remarkably
high degree the characteristics of purity, rounded grains, etc., which
mark an eolian rock. A similar origin from an area of coastal sands
is ascribed by A. W. G. Wilson ° to the band of gray sandstone
stretching across Ontario from Niagara Falls to Collingwood, and by
Huntington and Goldthwait d to the Kanab and Colob formations
(probably Permian) of southwestern Utah and northwestern Arizona.
From its analogies with certain recent eolian limestones of India,
Evans* suggests that the Great Oolite series of England may bo
eolian. The Triassic reptiliferous sandstone of Elgin, Scotland/ and
the Triassic strata of England in general,* the Hawkcsbury sand-
stone of Australia,* the sandstones of Rambouillet (France),' and
the Nubian sandstone (Cretaceous) of Egypt/ all show indications
of eolian action, but in no case is the evidence perfectly conclusive.
Old dune areas underlying the loess along the border of the Iowan
drift have been found bv Shimek,* and Parran l has described from
^— .— -, — -—— — i - ^^— — — ■— - ^— ^
Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 17: 229-250 (1906). Cf. Grabau— Jour. geol. 17: 249-250
(1909). Calvin dissents, ibid., p. 250.
6 In a paper as yet unpublished. I am indebted to Professor Sherzcr for the oppor-
tunity of examining the preliminary draft. An abstract (by Grabau) is published
in Science (n. s.) 26: 832 (1907). See also Grabau — loc. cit. supra.
c Canad. rec. sci. 9 2 120-122 (1903).
dBull. Mus. comp. zool. 42: 214-216 (1904). See also Huntington— Bull. Geol.
soc. Amer. 18: 384-388 (1907).
« Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 56: 578-580 (1900).
/ Mackie— Trans. Edinb. geol. soc. 7: 166 (1897).
a See p. 145 below.
*Tenison-Woods-nJour. Proc. Roy. hoc. N. S. Wales 16: 53-116 (1882).
* Meunier— Compt. rend. 85 1 1240-1242 (1877).
iWalther— Vorh. GeB. Erdk. Berlin 15: 253 (1888); Blanckenhorn— Geologie
Agyptens, p. 27 et seq. (1901); Fourtau— Compt. rend. 185: 803-804 (1902). A
marine origin is favored by Hume — Topography of Southeastern Sinai, p. 153 (1906).
*Bull. Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 5: 357 (1904).
1 Bull. Soc. geol. France (3) 18: 245-251 (1890).
EOLIAN ACTION DUBING PEE-PLEISTOCENE TIME. 143
the northern coast of Africa some dunes which he believes to be of
Pliocene age.
Other examples of ancient, though perhaps not pre-Pleistocene
dunes have been described from many parts of the world, and the
layers of soil often found covering dune sands and interstratified
with them * indicate a previous and interrupted activity of the agents
of dune production. In fact it is probable, as Braine c believes to
be the case in South Africa, that sand movement and dune produc-
tion is likely to be intermittent, periods of rest and of soil forma-
tion alternating with periods of active sand-drift. d Resting sand
dunes which are calcareous or contain any calcareous material are
soon consolidated by the action of percolating waters,* and important
deposits of eolian rock (so far as known of comparatively recent age)
have been produced in this way.' Such rocks formed from coral
<* Good examples are the observations of Kennard and Warren in Cornwall (Geol.
Mag. (4) 10: 19-25 [1903]), or of Solger in northern Germany (Verh. deut. Geog.-
Tagsl5: 159-172 [1905], Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 57, Monatsb.: 179-190 [1905], Monatob!
deut. geol. Ges. 1908: 54-59). In connection with these last observations see also
Romer — Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1907: 48-55, and literature there cited. Durcgne
has discovered that there are two Buperposed dune systems in Gascony, one ancient
and one recent (Compt. rend. Ill: 1006-1008 [1890], Actes Soc. linn. Bordeaux
57: 1-10 [1902], and other articles cited in the bibliography). See also Fabre —
Compt. rend. 135: 1134-1135 (1902). Klemm has made an analogous discovery of
three periods of sand drift on the plains of the Main near Darmstadt (Notizbl. Ver.
Erdk. Darmstadt 1892: 36-37).
b For examples see Boase — Trans. Roy. Geol. soc. Cornwall 2 : 142 (1822); Knowlcs —
Jour. Anthrop. inst. 7: 202 (1878), 9: 320 (1879); C. W. Ilall and Sardeson— Bull.
Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 352-359 (1899); WahnschafTe— Ursachen der Oberflachengestal-
tung, p. 248 (1901); Shimek— Bull. Lab. nat. hiBt. Univ. Iowa 5: 359 (1904); Coffey
and Praeger— Proc. Roy. Irish acad. 25: 193-196 (1904); etc.
c Proc. Inst. civ. eng. 150 : 380-381 (1902). Cf . the observations of Tenison-Woods
on the South Australian coast — Jour. Proc. Roy. boc. N. S. Wales 16: 60 (1882).
<* If this fact is general it may have its application in the hypothesis of alternating
changes of climate recently proposed by Iluntington (The Pulse of Asia [1907]).
«Sce H. von Meyer— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1848: 465-473; and Rice— Bull. U. 8.
Nat. mus. 25:15(1884).
/For examples see Gregory— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 17: 480 (1861); Topley — Pop.
sci. rev. 14: 136 (1875); Reade— Geol. mag. (2) 8: 197-198 (1881); Tenison-
Woods— Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. N. S. Wales 16: 61-62 (1882); Marsh- The earth as
modified by human action, ed. of 1885, pp. 542, 551 ; Walther — Denudation inderWQste,
pp. 527-529 (1891); Does— Korrespbl. Naturforscherver. Riga 39: 32 (1896); Corstor-
phine — Ann. rept. Geol. comm. Cape Good Hope 2 : 25-28 (1897); Blake — Quart, jour.
Geol. soc. 53: 227-230 (1897); Rogers and Schwarz— Trans. South African phil. soc.
10: 427-436 (1898); Evans— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 56: 559-581 (1900); Chapman—
ibid. 56: 584-589 (1900); Bishop— Amer. geol. 27: 1-5 (1901); Bertololy— Krausel-
ungsmarken und Dttnen, pp. 7-8 (1900); Philippi— Deut. Sud-polar Exped. 1: 29
(1902); Dorsey et al— Field Operations Bur. of Soils 1902: 803; Braine— loc. cit.;
and Branner— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 16: 307 (1S03). On the analogous phenomena of
the consolidation of beach sands sec the thorough discussion of Branner, in re the
stone reefs of Brazil— Bull. Mus. comp. zool. 44: 171-196 (1904).
144 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
sand are well developed in the Bahamas and Bermudas, 6 on the
coast of Florida/ 6n the Island of Fernando de Noronha, d etc.
These consolidated sands, whether the remains of coastal dunes
or of those of the desert, are the only known strata which can be
identified as eolian entirely from examination of their internal
characteristics. However, with the advance of geologic science it
has become increasingly possible to reconstruct from various lines
of evidence the climatic conditions which prevailed in past geologic
times and under which various strata were laid down. Geologists
have thus been able in certain cases to reach the tentative conclusion
that the strata concerned were terrestrially deposited and under
conditions of more or less complete aridity,* which conditions must
have been markedly favorable to eolian action, though direct trace
of such action may not be preserved. Thus Goodchild^ believes
that the Old Red, or Devonian sandstone of England, was formed
under desert or semidesert conditions; Passarge? thinks that the
Mesozoic climate of all southern Africa was a dry one; Suess* advo-
cates the hypothesis of terrestrial and arid origin for the Permian
beds of the basin of Rossitz, Hungary; Matthew* and Loomis'
believe that certain Tertiary beds of Nebraska represent an old
deposit of desert loess; and Barrell* has ascribed a semiarid (though
not desert) origin to the Mauch Chunk and similar formations in
eastern Pennsylvania, which conclusion has been confirmed by
« Nelson — Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 9: 200-215 (1853); A. Agassis — Bull. Mus. comp.
zool. 26: 19, 46-47, 170 (1894); Shattuck— The Bahama Islands, pp.12, 14-15 (1905).
b Nelson— Trans. Geol. soc. London (2) 5: 103-123 (1840); Rein— Ber. senckenb.
naturf. Ges. 1869-70: 140, 1872-73, 131; C. W. Thompson— The Atlantic, pp.
287-293(1878); Rice— Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 25: 9-15 (1884); A. Agassiz— Bull.
Mus. comp.zool. 26: 221-228 (1895); Verrill— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 9: 313-340 (1900).
The last article contains a bibliography.
cL. Agassiz— Bull. Mus. comp. zool. 1: 373-375 (1869); Dall and Harris— U. S.
Geol. surv. Bull. 84: 101 (1892); A. Agassiz— Bull. Mus. comp. zool. 28: 45 (1896).
d Branner— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 37: 145-161 (1889), 39: 247-257 (1890). Ridley,
however, dissents from Brenner's opinion as to the eolian origin of these rocks (ibid.
(3)41: 40G-409 [1891]).
«On the possibility of fossil deserts, see Walther — Rept. Brit. Assoc. 1896: 795.
/Trans. Edinb. geol. soc. 7: 203-222 (1897), Trans. Geol. soc. Glasgow 11: 79
(1898), Proc. Geol. assoc. (2) 18: 119 (1903). Good child's illustrative examples are
criticised by Barron— Topography Sinai, Western Portion, p. 215 (1907).
?Zs. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 1904: 176-193.
AJahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 57: 793-834, especially pp. 795-798 (1907). He also
refers to several possibly similar localities elsewhere.
i Amer. Nat. 33: 403-408 (1899).
I Amer. Jour. Sci. (4) 28: 17 (1909).
*Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 18: 449-476 (1907). See also Grabau— Jour. geol. 17 1
209-250 (1909).
EOLIAN ACTION DURING PBE-PLEISTOCENB TIME. 145
ierry* on the ground of the occurrence therein of a mineral
.rnotite) known to be formed under conditions of inadequate rain-
. J~ 1. Probably the best known and best established instances of
ch strata are those formed in the desert which seems to have
"" isted over northern Europe in Triassic time. 6 In England espe-
ally dune sand has been found in the deposits, 6 wind corraded and
)lished surfaces* and surfaces showing insolations! flaking have
aen discovered under certain of the strata, faceted pebbles have
~ een collected from them/ and other evidences of desert origin and
~ Dlian action brought to light.* The Keuper marls seem to repre-
- ant the eolian loess deposited in the bordering areas.*
- An important (though not the only) item in the evidence advanced
- n favor of the hypothesis of desert origin for certain of these strata
s their red color, and it has been frequently urged that all red beds
—ire desert, or at least subaerial, formations, it being claimed that the
requisite oxidation of the iron could not otherwise be attained.*
The incorrectness of this conclusion has been pointed out by Barrell.'
- Subaerial deposits are perhaps usually red, but this color is by no
-" means an invariable indication of such a history. Even if the possi-
a In a paper before Section E, Amer. assoc. adv. sci., Baltimore, Md., Dec. 28,
1008. I am indebted to Dr. Wherry for a more extended summary of his views than
was given at the meeting.
6 Fraas— Jahresh. Ver. vaterl. Naturk. 55: 42-68 (1899); Walther— Centbl. Min.
- 1904 : 5-12, Geschichte der Erde und dee Lebens, pp. 366-384 (1908).
c Phillips— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 37: 13 (1881); Mackie— Trans. Edinburgh geol.
soc. 7:166(1897), Kept. Brit. Assoc. 1901:650; Lomas— ibid. 1903: 655, Proc.
Liverpool geol. soc. 10: 194-196 (1905-6).
* Watts— Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1899: 747, Geog. Jour. 21: 632 (1903), Brit. asBoc.
Geol. photos. (3) No. 3755, desc. p. 26; Mackie— Kept. Brit, assoc. 1901 : 650-651;
Boeworth — Kept. Brit. Assoc. 1907 : 505-506, Trans. Leicester lit. phil. soc. 12 f
28-34 (1908).
« Lomas — loc. cit. p. 186.
/Beaaley— Proc. Liverpool geol. soc. 10: 87 (1905-6); Lomas— ibid. p. 196; W. D.
Brown — ibid. pp. 128-131; Zimmermann — Monateb. deut. geol. Ges. 1907: 229-230.
The evidence is summarized by Lomas — loc. cit. pp. 172-197; and Proc. York-
shire geol. soc., n. s. 16 : 15-20 (1906) . Bonney opposes the hypothesis of mainly desert
origin (Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 56: 288 [1900], 58: 201 [1902], Proc. Yorkshire geol.
soc., n. s. 16 : 1-14 [1906], Geol. mag. (5) 5 : 336-341 [1908]). See also Koken— Jahresh.
Ver. vaterl. Naturk. 61 : lxxvi-lxxvii (1905); and Blanckenhorn — Monateb. deut. geol.
Ges. 1907 : 297-315.
*See Lomas — loc. cit.; Beasley — loc. cit. pp. 79-97; Bosworth — loc. cit.
i On the origin and meaning of red color in rocks and soils, see Crosby — Proc. Boston
boc. nat. hist. 23: 219-222 (1888), Amer. geol. 8: 72-82 (1891); Russell— U. S. Geol.
surv. Bull. 52, 1889; Hudleston— Proc. Geol. assoc. (2) 11: 104-144(1889); Spring—
Neues Jahrb.Min. 1899, 1: 47-62; Katzer— ibid. II: 177-181; Huntington— Bull. Geol.
boc. Amer. 18: 379-382 (1907); and especially the brief but excellent discussion by
&** * Barrell-^Four. geol. 16 : 285-293 (1908).
i Loc. cit. See also D. White— Jour. geol. 17 : 339-340 (1909).
53W52°— Bull. 6&- 11 10
+ .
146 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
bility of secondary (metamorphic) reddening" be rejected, it is still
possible to imagine the red beds composed of material washed from
an old and well weathered land surface and deposited in the sur-
rounding seas. b
The problems of paleogeography are just beginning to be investi-
gated. In recent years Bonney c has examined and discussed the
evidences of past physiographic conditions which are furnished by
certain breccias; Grabau* has pointed out the importance to the
stratigrapher of a thorough study of the past history of strata in
general; and Barrell,' in a most valuable paper, has analyzed the
phenomena of erosion, deposition and stream transport and shown in
what manner they are severally affected by variations in climatic
conditions. The possibility of strata building under other than
subaqueous conditions is a comparatively new concept. When it,
and the various criteria by which previous climatic conditions may
be traced (as outlined by Barrell), shall have become better known
to, and understood by, field geologists, much progress may be ex-
pected in the identification of strata in the formation of which sub-
aerial agencies in general, and the wind in particular, have been
much more active than is now suspected.
VOLCANIC DUST AS SOIL MATERIAL.
FRAGMENTARY MATERIAL THROWN OUT BY VOLCANOES.
Besides gaseous matters and liquid lava, most erupting volcanoes
eject much material in the solid form, consisting of fragments of rock,
volcanic bombs, lapilli, and volcanic dust or "ash." / The amount
of the fragment al material thus ejected by the more explosive erup-
tions is enormous. Junghuhn? estimated that 381 cubic kilometers (92
cubic miles) were ejected in the great eruption of Tomboro in Sum-
bawa in 1815, and even if we follow Verbeek* in reducing this amount
to 150 cubic kilometers (36 cubic miles) it still remains stupendous.
It is estimated that the material thrown out by the explosion of
« As suggested by Barrell — loc. cit.
b See Grabau's suggestions in re the red formations of New York (Science (n. b.) 22:
528-535 [1905], Jour. geol. 17: 245 [1909]).
c Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 58: 185-206 (1902).
d Science (n. s.) 22 : 528-535 (1905). See alBo his article in Jour. geol. 17 : 209-250
(1909).
e Jour. geol. 16: 159-190, 255-295, 363-384 (1908).
/ For a discussion of all these classes of material see Johnston-Lavis — Proc. Geol.
aflsoc. (2)9: 421-132(1886).
pjava, vol. 2, p. 819-828 (1854). On this eruption see also Landgrebe — Natur-
geschichte der Vulcane, vol. 1, pp. 262, 263 (1855).
h Krakatau, p. 141 (1885). This is the report to the Dutch Government on the erup-
tion of Krakatoa and its accompanying phenomena.
CHARACTER AND PRODUCTION OF YOLCANIO DUST. 147
Bandaisan in Japan in 1888 was about 2,000,000,000 tons. Ver-
beek's 6 careful calculations of the material thrown out by the erup-
tion of Krakatoa in the Straits of Sunda in 1883 lead to a value of 18
cubic kilometers (4.3 cubic miles), one-third of which fell at a distance
of more than 15 kilometers (9.4 miles) from the seat of disturbance.
The great eruptions of Papanday ang c in Java in 1772, of Asama*
in Japan in 1783, and of Skaptar Jdkull ' in Iceland in the same year
doubtless produced even greater quantities of fragmental material
than this. The eruption of Krakatoa was remarkable not for any
great quantity of material discharged, but for the extreme violence
of the explosions by which the discharge was effected. The quantity
of material ejected by the recent (1902) eruptions of La Soufridre and
Pel£e in the West Indies was not insignificant/
The above estimates are based on the thickness and area of deposits
made near thfe volcanoes and hence include only the fragments of
appreciable size and that part of the fine dust which was entangled
by these large particles or carried down by local rains. A large part
of the ejected material is fine enough to be carried long distances by
the winds, and enough such volcanic dust has been, and is being,
distributed by the atmosphere to render it worthy of attention as a
constituent of the soil. It is estimated by Shaler ? that not less than
300 cubic miles of fine dust has been discharged by the Javanese and
Malayan volcanoes since 1770, and probably a more than equal
quantity has been discharged by volcanoes in other parts of the earth
during the same period.
CHARACTER AND PRODUCTION OF VOLCANIC DUST.
Volcanic dust has everywhere much the same appearance. Under
tlv microscope it is seen to be made up of thin, irregular shaped
fragments of vitreous material often so curved as to indicate that
« Sekiya and Kikuchi — Jour. Coll. sci. Imp. Univ. Japan 3: 91-172 (1889).
& Krakatau — p. 140. On this eruption see aleo the report of the Royal Society of
Jjondon cited in note &, p. 117. Both of these reports give full references to the lit-
erature. Many details of the eruption are also given in Proc. Roy. geog. soc, n. s.
6:142-152(1884).
c Junghuhn— Java, vol . 2, pp. 95-106 (1854). The discharged material is estimated
at 29,343,000,000 cubic feet; Schneider^Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 35: 1-26 (1885);
Volz-^Neues Jahrb. Min. Beilagebd. 20: 123-132 (1905).
d Marshall— Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan 6: 328 (1878); Milne— Rept. Brit. Assoc.
1887: 212-226.
<Thoroddsen — Ann, rept. Smithsonian Inst. 1885: 495-541.
/Anderson and Flett— Proc. Roy. soc. 70: 423-445 (1902); Hovey— Bull. Amer.
mus. nat. hist. 16 : 333-372 (1902), Amer. jour. sci. (4) 14 : 319-358 (1902), Nat. geog.
mag. 13: 444-459 (1902), papers by Hill, Russell, Diller, Hillebrand, and Page in the
last-named journal, 13: 223-301, 415-436 (1902); Heilprin— Eruption of Pelee, 1908.
g Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 12, I: 240-241 (1891).
148 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
they once formed parts of the walls of bubbles of glass. The frag-
ments themselves frequently contain small cavities, evidently
bubbles which remained unbroken. Complete hollow spheres of
glassy material have also been found. 6 Ordinary porous pumice
when pulverized gives a dust of this sort, and it is probable that
some volcanic dust originates by the mutual attrition of fragments
of pumice rising and falling above the crater. e It seems, however,
to be more largely formed by the blowing apart of the lava itself by
steam (or water) occluded in its mass and suddenly released from
pressure when the eruption takes place. d
The crystals of various minerals which are found mixed with the
glassy material of volcanic dust are probably in part microlites
which had crystallized out of the still fluid magma before the ex-
plosion and in part fragments detached by attrition from pieces of
previously solidified rock hurled into the air. It is possible, as sug-
gested by Abbe* that some of the finest dust of volcanic origin may
be derived from the evaporation in the air of droplets of water highly
charged with soluble substances.
The quantity of dust produced by any particular eruption depends
in the main on the violence of the explosion; that is, the amount of
confined steam and the suddenness with which it is released. If the
volcanic magma has sufficiently free access to the air the pressure
will be relieved gradually and lava will flow out slowly with little or
no explosive activity and the production of practically no dust.
Nearly all eruptions are, however, partly explosive in character, and
hence lead to the production of more or less dust.
THE AIR-TRANSPORT OF VOLCANIC DUST.
On account of the irregular form and common vesicular structure
of its component fragments, volcanic dust is very easily lifted and
<* On the characteristics of volcanic dust see Zirkel — Neuee Jahrb. Min. 1872: 24;
Murray and Renard— Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12: 477-488(1883-84). Also the
various references to occurrences cf volcanic dust cited on pp. 149-151 below. Bar-
bour's paper cited on p. 151 contains a number of figures showing the microscopic
appearance of various volcanic dusts. Figures are also given by Beijerinck — Nature
29: 308-309 (1884); Diller— ibid. 30: 91-93 (1884), Science 3: 651-654 (1884); and
Judd — Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, plates 3 and 4 (1888).
6 Humboldt— Kosmos, vol. 4, p. 255 (1858).
cjudd — Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, p. 39 (1888).
d Penck— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 30: 97-129 (1878), especially pp. 127-128; Hixon—
Min. and sci. press 95 : 809 (1907). Murray and Renard (Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh
12: 480 [1883-84],) suggest that the dust may be formed by the explosion of droplets
under tension caused by cooling — analogous to the phenomena of " Prince Rupert's
drops.' ' See also Forel— Bull. Soc. vaud. sci. nat. (4) 39: xxxiv-xxxv (1903). It
seems doubtful if such a cause is competent to account for the enormous quantities of
dust produced.
«Mon. weath. rev. 34: 164 (1906).
THE AIR-TBANSPOBT OP VOLCANIC DUST. 149
sustained by the wind, and it is also raised to great heights by the
volcanic explosions themselves, by ascending currents of steam and
heated air, and by the whirlwinds often formed over the crater. 6
Therefore, although it of course falls in greater quantity near the
point of origin, it is by no means confined to that locality, but may
be, and is, carried to great distances by the wind. Volcanic dust
from Iceland has several times fallen in Scandinavia/ in northern
Great Britain, d and in Holland/ Dust from Tomboro fell on Sumatra
a thousand miles away/ Krakatoa ashes fell inches deep at distances
of nearly 1,000 miles from the volcano,* and small quantities fell
even in Holland.* Dust from Colima in Mexico fell in February
and March, 1903, at points over 200 miles north and east of the
volcano,* and the ash from Santa Maria in Guatemala in October,
1902, covered all the northern part of that country and most of the
states of Tabasco, Veracruz, and Oaxaca in southern Mexico/ At
Tapachula, 40 miles away, the ashes were 19.5 centimeters thick.*
Ash from Coseguina in Nicaragua in 1835 covered an area of
1,500,000 square miles 1 and even reached Jamaica, more than 750
miles away. TO The dust from the eruption of Cotopaxi in Equador
in 1877 fell at Guayaquil, 150 miles away, to .the amount of 315
kilograms on every square kilometer during the first thirty hours
of the fall. Once 209 kilograms fell in twelve hours. n The dust
a Murray and Renard— Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12: 486 (1883-4.)
& See p. 87.
c Zirkel— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1875: 399; Daubree— Compt. rend. 80: 994, 1059
(1875); N. A. E. Nordenskiold— Geol. mag. (2) 3: 292-297 (1876), Met. Zs. 11:
201-206 (1894). On May 3, 1892, the dust amounted to between 1 and 2 grams per
square meter.
& Daubree— loc. cit.; Geikie — Textbook of geology, 4th ed., vol. 1, p. 295 (1903).
t Vom Rath— Monateb. K. Preuss. Akad. Wise. Berlin 1875: 282-286.
/ iSlie de Beaumont — Lecons de geologie pratique, vol. 1, p. 188 (1847).
9 See the Royal society report already cited (on p. 117) and Verbeek's work also
cited (on p. 146). Also Judd— Nature 29: 152, 595 (1883-1884), and the sym-
posium-ibid., pp. 174-175 (1883).
ABeijerinck and van Dam— Nature 29: 175 (1883).
< Ord6fiez— Rev. Soc. cient. Antonio Alzate 20: 99-104 (1903). On this vol-
cano and its eruptions see also Kerber — Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin 9: 237-246 (1882);
Sperry— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 15: 487-488 (1903); H. Kahler— Prometheus 17:
214-219 (1906).
I On this eruption see Sapper— Centbl. Min. 1903: 33-44, 65-72; Schmidt— ibid.,
p. 131; Brauns— ibid., p. 132, 290; Eisen— Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 35: 325-352 (1903);
and Ord6flez— Par. Inst. geol. Mex. 1: 229-234 (1904). Eisen's figure for the dust-
covered areas is too large (B6se — Par. Inst. geol. M6x. 1: 51-54 [1904]).
* Brauns — loci citati.
I TisBandier— Rev. sci. (2) 18: 815 (1880).
•» filie de Beaumont — Leconsde geologie pratique, vol. 1, p. 188 (1847); Schiefer —
Wetter 20: 258(1903).
n Wolf— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1878 : 141. The eruption is described by Whymper—
Travels amongst the Great Andes, 1892.
150 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
ejected by this same volcano in 1888 amounted to more than 2,000,000
tons. a On this occasion the dust cloud traveled 85 miles in six hours. *
At the eruption of Tarawera in New Zealand in 1886, 1,960,000,000
cubic yards of dust was discharged in five or six hours and covered
a land area of over 6,000 square miles. Much more dust fell into
the sea. Dust from the eruptions of La Soufriire and Pel6e in 1902
fell plentifully all over the West Indies and especially at Barbados, 4
130 miles from Pel6e and 225 from La Soufridre. Dust from the
eruption of Pel6e in 1812 is said to have reached the Azores. € Dust
from Vesuvius has been observed in Greece/ in France,' and in
Austria.*
All these observations refer to falls of dust in such quantity that
it could be collected or easily observed. From the optical effects of
such material in the atmosphere it is known that small amounts of
volcanic dust are transported to very much greater distances.' At
the time of the Krakatoa eruption dust was distributed over nearly
the whole earth.
From the ease of transfer of volcanic dust and the large number
of volcanoes discharging it,' it follows that the soil in all parts of the
earth is likely to receive at least some slight accretion from this
source. The accretion is of course largest in countries of many
volcanoes, such as Japan, Java, and Central America, and in the
neighborhood of isolated active volcanoes like Vesuvius and Etna.
In these localities volcanic dust is always an important, and often the
most important, constituent of the soil materials. Even, however,
in countries far from active volcanoes the share of volcanic dust in
a Whymper — loc. cit. p. 328.
ft Whymper— Nature 29: 199 (1883).
c Cadell— Trans. Edinb. geol. boc. 7: 183-200 (1896).
* 2,200,000 tone fell on Barbados on May 7-8 (Hapke— Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen
17: 545 [1903]). See also Dillerand Steiger— Science (n. e.) 15: 947-950 (1902);
Morris— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 58: lxxxiv (1902); Porter— Nature 66: 131 (1902);
Bonney— Nature 67: 584 (1903); Hapke— Himmel und Erde 15: 89-92 (1902);
Barenborg and Gottsche — Annalen Hydrog. 31: 270-271 (1903); and the references
cited on p. 147. For a notice of fall of Pelee dust at San Juan, Porto Rico, 400 miles
away, see Thompson — Mon. weath. rev. 30: 488 (1902). Dust from these eruptions
fell on ships as much as 600 miles away (Page— Nat. geog. mag. 13: 299-301 [1902]).
« Porter— Nature 66: 132 (1902).
/ £lie de Beaumont — Leoons de geologic pratique, vol. 1, p. 188 (1847).
Meunier— Compt. rend. 142: 938 (1906); van den Broeck— Ciel et terre 27:
330-334 (1906).
h Ohnesorge— Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1906: 296-297; Veenema— Wetter 23:
116-117 (1906); and notices by von Nettovich, Mazelle, and Jane&fc— Met. Zs. 23:
223-225 (1906).
<See Archenhold— Weltall 2:225-227 (1902); Stentzel— Wetter 21:121-125
(1904).
i Probably about 300 or 400 (A. Geikie— Textbook of geology, 4th ed., p. 346 [1903]).
Milne thinks that the volcanoes active in the past 4,000 years would number several
thousand (Earthquakes and other earth movements, p. 227 [1886]).
VOLCANIC TUFFS, 151
soil formation is not always negligible. The ubiquity of volcanic
dust is shown by its constant presence in deep-sea deposits. 6
VOLCANIC TUFFS.
But the volcanic material of importance to the soil is not alone
that furnished by contemporaneous eruptions. There exist in prac-
tically all parts of the earth beds of volcanic ash or "tuff" derived
from the volcanoes of previous geologic time. e Some of these tuffs
are as fresh and unconsolidated as if they had been deposited yester-
day. Many show traces of deposition by water and probably consist
of material which fell into lakes and rivers. Others were evidently
deposited by the wind alone. Deposits of tuff are common over most
of the United States west of the Mississippi and north of (but includ-
ing) Colorado and Utah, and exist in a few other of the Western States. d
Similar deposits occur in Alaska/
« Cf. A. Geikie— Textbook of geology, 4th ed. y p. 295 (1903).
* Murray— Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 9: 247-262 (1876); Murray and Renard—
Nature 29: 588 (1884); Walther— Einleitung in der Geologie als historische Wis-
senschaft, p. 955 (1894); Shaler— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 7: 49(M92 (1896).
c On tuffs in general see Reyer— Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 31: 57-66 (1881);
Penck— Zs. deut. geol. Ges. 31: 504-577 (1879); A. Geikie— Textbook of geology,
4th ed. f pp. 172-175 (1903), and references cited by these authors.
d On the unconsolidated tuffs or beds of volcanic ash in the western United States
see the following authors: Dutton— High plateaus of Utah, pp. 71-74, 192 (1880);
Aughey — Sketches of the physical geography and geology of Nebraska, pp. 238-241
(1880); Garman — Boston Transcript, Nov. 10, 1882 (also notice of this same occur-
rence in Wadsworth — Mem. Mus. comp. zool. 11: 17 [1884], and Science 6: 63
[1885]); Merrill— Science 5: 335 (1885) (more fully in Proc. U. S. Nat. mus. 8:
99-100 [1886]). See also Merrill— Rocks, rock-weathering and soils, p. 337 (1906);
Russell— U. S. Geol. surv.Monogr. 11: 146-149 (1886); Peale— Science 8: 163-165
(1886), U. S. Geol. surv. Geol. folio 24, 1896; Todd— Science 7: 373 (1886); Hicks—
Amer. geol. 1: 277-280 (1888), 2: 64, (1888); Turner— Bull. Phil. soc. Wash, lit
389 (1891); Dumble— Trans. Tex. acad. sci. 1: 33-34 (1892); Udden— Amer. geol.
11: 268-271 (1893), Pop. sci. mon. 54: 222-229 (1898); Barbour— Proc. Nebraska
acad. sci. 1894-95 : 12-17; Turner— Science (n. s.) 1 : 453-455 (1895); Montgomery—
ibid., pp. 656-^57; Dumble— ibid. 5t 657-658; Cross— U. S. Geol. surv. Monogr. 27:
311-315 (1896); Salisbury— Science (n. s.) 4: 816-817 (1896); Cragin— Colo. Coll.
studies 6: 53-54 (1896); Winchell and Grant— Amer. geol. 18: 211-213 (1896);
Todd— Science (n. s.) 5: 62 (1897); Barbour— Mineral ind. 1897: 22-25; Haworth—
Univ. Geol. surv. Kansas 2: 256-257 (1897), U. S. Geol. surv. Water sup. pap. 6: 33
(1897); Darton— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 19, IV.: 760-761 (1899); Berkey—
Amer. geol. 21: 146-147 (1898); Russell— U. S. Geol. surv. Water sup. pap. 53:
32-34 (1901), ibid., Bull. 199: 50, 73(1902), Bull. 217: 61 (1903); Spurr— ibid.,
Bull. 208: 65 (1903); Rowe— Univ. Montana Bull. 17, 1903; Woolsey— U. S. Geol.
surv. Bull. 285: 476-479 (1906); W. T. Lee— ibid. 352: 84 (1908). Samples are
described by Diller— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 150: 212-214, 245-248 (1898); and by
Iddings — ibid., pp. 146-148. For references to American occurrences of altered and
consolidated tuffs see p. 152 below.
e Schwatka — Along Alaska's great river, p. 196 (1885); Dawson — Ann. rept. Geol.
and nat. hist. surv. Canada 3, I: 43B-46B (1887-8); Russell— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer.
1: 145 (1890); Hayes— Nat. geog. mag. 4: 146 (1892); Spurr— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol.
surv. 18, HI: 223 (1898); Brooks— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 21, II: 365-366
(1900).
152 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Deposits of volcanic ash which have been more or less altered and
indurated are also common in many parts of the world. In North
America they have been found in Maine, Massachusetts, 6 Con-
necticut, and other New England States; in Michigan/ Montana/
Colorado/ Wyoming,* and California ;* in Canada/ in the West
Indian Islands/ and in the neighborhood of the Mexican volcanoes.
It is probable that deposits as yet undescribed occur in many other
localities.
THE COMPOSITION OF VOLGANIO DUSTS.
The composition of volcanic dusts depends of course upon that of
the lavas from which they are derived. The glassy material — always
by far the larger part * — is simply undifferentiated lava, acid or
basic, as the case may be. An analysis of the glassy part of the dust
from the Krakatoa eruption is given as No. 9 in Table IX, page 155.
The rrfinerals found in determinable size are mainly plagioclase feld-
spars, rhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes (augite and hypersthene)
and magnetite. 1 Hornblende and olivine are less frequent but not
H. E. Gregory— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 165: 119-131 (1900).
* £. Hitchcock— Geology of Massachusetts, p. 648 (1841); Diller— Proc. Boston
soc. nat. hist. 20: 355-368 (1881).
« E. Hitchcock— Amer. jour. sci. (2) 4: 199-207 (1847); Emerson— Bull. Geol. soc.
Amer. 8: 59-86(1897).
d G. H. Williams— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 62: 151-154, 15&-159, 175-177 (1890).
t Merrill— Amer. jour. sci. (3) 32: 199-204 (1886).
/ Cross— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 16, II: 50-53, 60-63 (1895).
9 Sinclair— Bull. Amer. mus. nat. hist. 22: 273-280 (1906), 26 • 25-27 (1909).
* Turner— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 17, 1: 627 (1896); Diller— U. S. Geol. surv.
Bull. 150 : 211-213 (1898).
< In the Sudbury region: Barlow— Can. Geol. surv. Summ. rept. 1902: 256-257.
In the Lake of the Woods region: Lawson — Geol. and nat. hist. surv. Canada Ann.
rept. (n. s.) 1, Rept. CC: 51 (1886). In British Columbia: Ferrier— Canada Geol.
surv. (n. s.) 7, Rept. B, App. 1: 355-356, 358-369, 364-368 (1896).
J Spencer— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 58: 345, 347, 349, 351-353 (1902). On the
recent tuffs of St. Vincent see Howe — Amer. jour. sci. (4) 16: 317-322 (1903).
* The Krakatoa dust was about 91 per cent glass, 6 per cent feldspar, 1.3 per cent
hyperpthene, 0.6 per cent augite, and 1 per cent magnetite (Verbeek — Krakatau, p.
312 [1886]).
1 For mineralogical examinations of volcanic dusts see the following papers:
On dust from Vesuvius, February 9, 1850: Ehrenberg — Ber. K. preuss. Akad.
Wise Uerlin 1850: 78-79. From the same volcano, April 27-28, 1872: Fruh— Met.
Zs. 20: 175(1903).
On the dust of the Swedish fall of May 3, 1892: Ussing — Vidensk. medd. Naturh.
forcn. Copenhagen 44: 131-138 (1892); NordenBkidld— Met. Zs. 11: 205-206 (1894).
On the dust from Krakatoa: Verbeek — Krakatau, pp. 221-302 (1885); Murray and
Renard— Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12: 479-488 (1883-84); Renard— Bull. Acad,
roy. Belg. (3) 6: 495-506 (1883); Daubree— Compt. rend. 97: 1104 (1883); Joly—
Sci. proc. Roy. Dublin soc. (n. s.) 4: 291-299 (1884).
On dust from La Soufriere and Pel£e in 1902: Anderson and Flett — Proc. Roy. soc.
70: 430 (1902); Flett^-Quart. jour. Geol. soc. 58: 368 (1902); Bonney— ibid. Proc.:
THE COMPOSITION OF VOLCANIC DUSTS. 153
uncommon. Micas have been found in Vesuvius dust," in the Swedish
dust of May, 1892/ in that of Pel6e e and of Santa Maria, d and pos-
sibly in that from Krakatoa. * The materials from Vesuvius ' and
from Pel6e c also contain leucite. Pyrite has been found in Kraka-
toa dust* and in dust which fell at Dominica, West Indies, on Janu-
ary 4, 1880.* This latter dust also contained galena, which, as per-
haps also the pyrite, may have been secondary, and formed by
reactions occurring after the eruption. Zircons were found in the
Swedish dust, 6 in that from Santa Maria/ and probably in that from
Pel6e.* -Apatite was present in the dust from Krakatoa,* Pel6e,'
and Santa Maria. 1 In all examinations of volcanic dust it is of course
necessary to guard against the very possible admixture of local soil
material transiently suspended in the atmosphere. The beds of
prehistoric volcanic ash have of course practically the same mineralog-
ical composition as their modern analogues.™
lxxxvi (1902); Klein— Sitzungsb. K. preuss. Akad. Wise. Berlin 1902: 993-994;
Porter— Nature 66: 131-132 (1902); Falconer— ibid . p. 132; Gentil— Bull. Soc. geol.
France (4) 2: 320-321(1902); Levy— Compt. rend. 134: 1123-1124(1902); Diller and
Steiger— Science (n. b.) 15: 947 (1902); Diller— Nat. geog. mag. 13: 289-294 (1902);
Lacroix— Compt. rend. 134: 1327-1329 (1902); Albuquerque and Smith— West
Indian bull. 4: 97-100 (1903); Barenborg and Gotteche— Annalen Hydrog. 31: 271
(1903); Hapke— Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen 17: 545 (1903).
On dust from Santa Maria, Guatemala, in 1901: Ord6fiez — Rev. Soc. cient. An-
tonio AJzate 18: 34-35 (1902), Par. Inst. geol. Mexico 1: 231 (1904); Bergcat—
Centbl. Min. 1903: 112-117; Schmidt— ibid., p. 131; Brauns— ibid., pp. 132-134;
Schottler — ibid., pp. 288-289. For a qualitative chemical analysis see: Villa-sefior —
Boll. Sec. Fomento Mexico (2) 2, 7, II: 279-280 (1902).
On dust from Colima, Mexico, in 1903: Ord6fiez — Mem. Rev. Soc. cient. Antonio
Alzate Rev. 20: 103 (1903).
On several samples from Cotopaxi: Bonney — Proc. Roy. soc. 37: 122-125 (1884).
Bee also Nature 16: 335 (1877).
o Ehrenberg— Ber. K. preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1850: 79.
6 Nordenskiold— Met. Zs. 11: 205-206 (1894).
e Hapke— Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen 17: 545 (1903).
* Schmidt— Centbl. Min. 1903: 131; Brauns— ibid., pp. 132-134; Schottler— ibid.,
pp. 288-289.
e Murray and Renard— Nature 29: 587 (1884).
/Fruh— Met. Zs. 20: 175 (1903).
Murray and Renard— Nature 29: 587 (1884); Daubree— Compt. rend. 97: 1104
(1883); Verbeek— Krakatau, pp. 293-295 (1885).
A Daubree— Compt. rend. 90: 624-626 (1880).
i Brauns— Centbl. Min. 1903: 132-134; Schottler— ibid., pp. 288-289.
i Flett— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 58: 368 (1902).
* Murray and Renard— Nature, 29: 587(1884); Verbeek— Krakatau, p. 292(1885).
*Ord6fiez — Mem. Rev. Soc. cient. Antonio Alzate Rev. 18: 34 (1902), Par. Inst.
geol. Mex. 1: 231 (1904); Brauns— Centbl. Min. 1903: 132-134; Schottler— ibid.,
pp. 288-289.
m Mineralogical examinations of samples from Montana are given by Clarke and
Hillebrand— U. S. Geol. eurv. Bull. 148: 197 (1897); and by Iddings— ibid., Bull.
150: 147(1898).
154 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIOT>.
The chemical compositions of various volcanic dusts and tuffs are
given in Tables IX, X, and XI, the analyses being numbered continu-
ously throughout the three tables. Analyses 1 and 2 were made by
Duf r6noy ° of dusts from the two Central American volcanoes named.
Nos. 3, 4, and 5 are of dusts discharged by the eruption of Krakatoa,
No. 3 being of dust which fell in the immediate vicinity of the vol-
cano, No. 4 6 of that which fell at Buitenzorg, 100 miles away, and
No. 5 C of that which fell on board the steamer Barbarossa, in lati-
tude 10° 41' south and longitude 93° 15' east of Greenwich, about
900 miles ENE. of Krakatoa. No. 6 d is a dust which fell on the
deck of a ship in the harbor of St. Pierre, Martinique, during the
eruption of Mount Pel6e in 1902, and No. 7 e is of dust which fell at
Barbados during the eruptions of La Soufri&re in the same year.
No. 8 1 is of volcanic sand from the recent (though not historic)
eruption at the Cinder Cone in the Lassen Peak district, California.
No. 9 9 is of the glassy part of the Krakatoa dust which fell at Buiten-
zorg, the complete analysis of which is given as No. 4.
All the analyses in Table X are of the loose volcanic ash deposits
of the western States, described on page 151. The references to
authorities are given in the notes to the table. Table XI contains
a few analyses of tuffs which have undergone metamorphism and
been consolidated into more or less compact rock. In Nos. 20, 21, 22,
and 24 the process has been silicification. In No. 23 the cement is
evidently calcareous.*
All the analyses (except No. 23, which contains CaCO, as just
noted) are expressed in percentages of the ignited weight. This
a Ann. mines (3) 12: 355-372 (1837), Compt. rend. 6t 177 (1838).
b Analysis by Winkler, quoted by Verbeek— Krakatau, p. 305 (1886).
cOebbeke— Neues Jahrb. Min. 1884: II, 32-33 (cited by Verbeek— Krakatau, p.
323 [1886]). For other analyses of Krakatoa dust (which agree fairly well with those
quoted) see Judd — Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, p. 40 (1888); Verbeek — Krakatau,
pp. 305-314 (1886); Sauer— Sitzungsb. naturf. Ges. Leipzig 10: 87 (1883); Murray
and Renard— Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12: 484 (1883-84); van der Bur#— Rec.
trav. chim. Pays Bas 2: 298-303 (1883). For criticisms of the two last analyses see
Verbeek — Krakatau, pp. 317 and 319, respectively.
d Chem. news 85 : 282 (1902). For other analyses of Pelee dust see Lacroix (analy-
ses by Pisani)— Compt. rend. 134: 1329 (1902); Carmody— Trinidad Mirror, May 22,
1902; Wiechmann— Science (n. s.) 15: 910-911 (1902); Steiger— ibid., p. 948; Hovey
(analysis by Ilillebrand) — Amer. jour. sci. (4) 14: 327 (1902); Diller— Nat.geol.mag.
13: 291 (1902); Griffiths— Chem. news 88: 231 (1903); Schmelck— Chemztg. 27i
34 (1903). The dust from the eruption of 1851 as analyzed by Pisani (Lacroix, loc.
cit.) is not essentially different from that of 1902.
« Analysis by Pollard, quoted by Flett— Quart, jour. Geol. soc. 58: 369 (1902),
and Teall — Nature 66: 130 (1902). Another analysis by Hillebrand is quoted by
Rowe— Univ. of Montana Bull. 17: 10 (1903). See also Diller-— Nat. geol. mag. 13:
291 (1902). A dust from the eruption of the Grand Soufriere at Dominica in 1880 has
been analyzed by Daubree — Compt. rend. 90: 625 (1880).
/ Hillebrand, quoted by Diller— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 79 : 29 (1891). Also given
in Bull. 148: 198(1897).
Verbeek — Krakatau, p. 311.
*This sample contained 13.81 per cent of carbon dioxide.
THE COMPOSITION OF VOLOAJSTIC DUSTS.
155
makes all comparable and the errors introduced are small since mate-
rial of this sort loses on ignition practically nothing but its hygroscopic
water. Some of the analyses have been recalculated to bring them
to this basis.
Table IX. — Chemical analyses of volcanic dusts.
Volcano.
Cosi-
guina,
Nica-
ragua.
La8ou-
frtere,
Guade-
loupe.
Krakatoa.
Pelfe:
Dust
fallen at
Barba-
dos.
LaSou-
friere:
Dust
fallen at
Barba-
dos.
Voteantc
sand from
Lassen
Peak,
Cali-
fornia.
Glassy
part of
Kraka-
toa dust:
Bulten-
torg.
Constitu-
ents.
Dust
fallen at
Kraka-
toa.
Dust
fallen at
Buiten-
sorg.
Dust
fallen on
ship
900 miles
away.
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
BIOi
Al,Oi
FetOt
61.45
19.63
59.10
22.54
2.58
61.36
17.77
4.39
1.71
3.45
2.32
2.51
4.98
66.26
16.31
3.38
1.36
3.61
1.06
2.23
4.45
69.52
15.37
0.29
3.74
2.77
0.83
3.48
4.35
53.40
21.00
9.50
63.02
18.85
3.29
4.60
9.62
5.21
0.60
3.24
56.01
17.40
1.50
6.21
a 06
7.31
1.35
3.33
68.12
15.81
} 5.01
2.78
1.18
1.06
6.09
FeO
2.30
3.10
0.61
2L77
a 87
CaO
MgO
KtO
NatO
PfO».
5.10
1.42
4.38
2.27
9.70
2.00
0.85
2.33
0.25
Nora.— For references to the authorities for the above analyses see p. 154.
Table X. — Chemical analyses of unconsolidated volcanic tuffs.
Constitu-
ents.
Harlan
County,
Nebr.
Fort
Ellis,
Mont.
Boce-
man,
Mont.
Little
Sage
Croek,
Mont.
Gallatin
Valley,
Mont.
Ravalli
County,
Mont.
Marsh
Creek
Valley,
Idaho.
Cotton-
wood
Canyon,
Idaho.
Trackee
River,
Nev.
Owens
Lake,
Cal.
10.«
11.6
12. c
13.d
14. «
15./
16.9
17.*
18.<
19 J
BIOi
AlgOg
Fe«0,
FeO
72.05
} 18.40
69.24
24.62
75.83
16.20
71.05
19.76
74.65
/ 13.79
\ 1.24
1.27
1.21
1.24
6.07
1.34
69.95
} 21.80
74.55
17.66
71.50
/ 14.89
\ 1.21
1.28
2.21
.49
2. (ft
5.28
.10
74.00
} 16.61
57.65
/ 11.04
\ 3.54
.69
CaO
.90
.25
6.92
1.68
2.08
1.51
1.40
.91
1.27
.36
3.17
2.96
2.80
.78
4.27
2.26
.40
4.26
4.68
1.75
Trace.
4.33
1.69
.89
.43
3.50
5.14
9.45
MgO
KiO
2.29
3.08
NaiO
p,o*
3.19
.28
o Merrill— Rocks, rock-weathering, and soils, 2d ed., p. 338 (190f>). An analysis of tuff from Bazile Croek,
Nebraska, Is given by Clarke— U. 8. Geol. surv. Bull. 42: 142 (1887). An analysis by Nicholson of an
average sample of Nebraska tuff is given by Barbour— Proc. Nebraska acad. sci. 1891-95: 13.
ft Clarke— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 48: 141 (1887). Also in Bull. 148: 141 (1897).
e Clarke— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 42: 141 (1887). Also in Bull. 148: 141 (1897). The analysis of a second
sample from the same locality is also given, as well as that of a sample from Devil's Pathway, Montana,
and one from Dry Creek Valley, Montana.
d Loci cltati in last note; also Merrill— Rocks, rock-weathering, and soils, 2d ed., p. 133 (1906).
eStokes— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 148: 141 (1897).
/ Rowe — Univ. of Montana Bull. 17: 9 (1903). An analysis of a second sample from the same locality
Is also given.
v Loci cltati in notes c and d.
* Hillebrand— U. S. Geol. surv. Water supp. pap. 58: 34 (1901).
'Chatard— U. 8. Geol. surv. Bull. 9: 14 (1884). Also given by Russell— XT. 8. Geol. surv. Monogr. 11:
147 (1886).
> Chatard— U. 8. Geol. surv. Bull. 148: 229 (1897). An analysis of a sample from near Red din p. Cal., Is
also given. Analyses by Stelger of two samples from the Downieville area, California, are given in the
Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 17 » I: 627 (1895-96). An acid digestion analysis by Colby of a sample from
PlacervlUe, Cal., is given by Loughridge— Cal. agr. expt. stat. Rent. 1898 1901, II: 173. An analysis by
Stokes of an impure tuff, partly of organic origin, from Douglas County. Oreg., is given by Clarke— U. 8.
Geol. surv. Bull. 168: 223 (1900). Eight analyses of recent tuffs from the ITawaiian Islands are reported
by Maxwell— Lavas and soils of the Hawaiian Islands, Spec. Bull. A, Hawaiian sugar planters' expt.
stat.. p. 21 (1898). Analyses of four samples from the Philippine Islands are reported by Cox— Philip.
Jour. sci. 8s 404 (1908).
156
MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Table XI. — Chemical analyses of metamorphosed tuffs.
SlOt...
AltO,..
FeiOs..
FeO...
CaO...
MrO...
KiO...
NatO..
PiO»...
Oldberg,
Odenwald,
Germany.
».•
83.80
0.65
.43
.58
.54
Trace.
4.74
.50
Chemnitz,
Germany.
21>
}
77.52
14.18
3.23
4.4A
1.00
St David's,
Wales.
22.0
{
82.18
11.51
.20
1.44
.53
.07
3.04
.73
Castle
HUl,Me.
23.«
83.40
12.20
2.52
7.05
17.77
5.65
.70
2.40
.40
Mar-
quette.
Mich.
24.0
76.78
13.54
.46
.70
.32
1.15
3.74
.57
Trace.
«E. Cohen— Die sur Dyas geh&rlgpn Gestelne des sfldlichen Odenwaldes, p. 57 (1871).
• Eras— Neues Jahrb. Hln. 1864: 673-686. An analysis of similar material from the same locality Is
gren by Knop In the same Jahrbuch, 1869 : 575. Both are quoted by O. H. Williams— U. S. Geol. suit.
all. 6S : 153. An analysis of a similar tuff from Triberg in the Black Forest is given by O. H. Williams—
Neocs Jahrb. Mln. Beilagebd. 9t 630 (1883).
• A. Gelkie— Quart, four. Geol. soc. 89: 207 (1883).
JHiUebrand, quoted by Gregory— U. 8. Geol. soxv. Bull. 165 1 184 (1000). Also quoted by Clarke—,
ibidy Bull. 168 : 20(1900).
• HJUebrand, quoted by O. H. Williams— U. 8. Geol. surv. Bull. 69 1 152 (1800).
From the point of view of the influence of this material on the soil,
the most interesting thing about the analyses is the considerable con-
tent of potassium which they show. Among the volcanic dusts only
those of Pel6e and La Soufridre show less than 1 per 'cent of K,0, and
the tuffs of Table X are still higher. In addition to the values given
in the tables, other analyses of Krakatoa dust have given K,0 per-
centages of 1.00, 6 1.06, c 1.46, d 1.82, € 2.25/ and 2.46.« Van der
Burg' obtained a value of only 0.155 per cent, but this is so
much below all other determinations as to be seriously in doubt,
especially as his analyses have been questioned on other grounds.*
In the West Indian dusts of 1902 Hillebrand' found 0.67 per cent
K a O; Steiger' found 0.72 per cent; Griffiths* found 0.65 per cent;
Pisani' found 0.89 per cent; and Schmelck" 1 found 0.96 per cent and
0.55 per cent. The dust from the eruption of this volcano in 1851
contained 1.66 per cent K a O." Dust (probably volcanic) which fell
« All percentages are figured to the ignited weight as in the tables.
& Murray and Renard— Nature 29: 688 (1884).
c Verbeek— Krakatau, p. 311 (1886).
<*Sauer — Sitzungsb. naturf. Ges. Leipzig 10: 87 (1883).
« Verbeek— Krakatau, p. 305 (1886).
/ Judd— Roy. soc. Rept. on Krakatoa, p. 40 (1888).
9 Rec. trav. chim. Pays-Baa 2: 298-303 (1883).
* Verbeek— Krakatau, p. 319 (1886).
<Hovey— Amer. jour. sci. (4) 14: 327 (1902).
i Science (n. s.) 15: 948 (1902). See also Diller— Nat. geog. mag. 13: 291 (1902).
* Chem. news 88 : 231 (1903).
* Quoted by Lacroix— Gompt. rend. 184: 1329 (1902).
»Chemztg. 27: 34 (1903).
* Pisani, quoted by Lacroix, loc. cit.
THE COMPOSITION OF VOLCANIC DUSTS, 157
in Scandinavia March 30, 1875, contained 1.40 per cent K,0. a The
Vesuvius dust of 1906 contained of K,0, soluble in concentrated
hydrochloric acid, 2.07 per cent. 6 Additional analyses of uncon-
solidated tuffs from the western United States give values of 1 .48,°
2.92, d 3.46,« 4.25/ 4.88,' 5.01,* and 5.58' per cent. Four samples
from the Philippines gave 1.86, 2.72, 2.84, and 3.63 per cent.'
On the other hand, Nicholson's' analysis of an average sample of
Nebraska tuff shows only 0.36 per cent K,0. Whether this indicates
an actual deficiency of potash in Nebraska tuffs or whether it is to
be referred to error of analysis or sampling it is impossible to say.*
The relatively high potash content of volcanic dusts can, and does,
persist after the processes of metamorphism have been completed, as
is shown by analyses 20, 21/ 22, and 24 in Table XI. In analysis
23, however (where the cement is calcareous), the potash is low, and a
silicified tuff containing but 0.88 per cent K,0 has been reported from
near Triberg, in the Black Forest, Germany." 1
The appreciable quantities of phosphorus in the Pel6e dust* and in
the tuffs from Cottonwood Canyon, Idaho, Owens Lake, California,'
and Castle Hill, Maine,* are also of interest from an agricultural
point of view. Phosphorus was also found in Krakatoa duat by van
o Nordenskiald— Met. Zs. 11: 211 (1894).
&Bruttini— Boll, quindic. Soc. agric. ital. 11: 343 (1906).
cFrom Bozeman, Mont.: Clarke— U. 8. Geo!, surv. Bull. 42: 141 (1887).
<*From Redding, Gal.: Melville— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 148: 197 (1897).
«From Devil's Pathway, Montana: Whitfield— U. S. Geol. surv. Bull. 42:141
(1887).
/From Ravalli County, Mont.: Berry, quoted by Rowe — Univ. of Mont. Bull. 17:
9 (1903).
fDownieville area, California: Steiger— Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 17, I: 627
(1896).
* Genesee Valley, Idaho: Wedderburn— Ann. Rept. U. 8. Geol. Surv. 17, I: 627
(1896).
i Cox— Philip. Jour. Sci. 3: 404 (1908).
i Quoted by Barbour — Proc. Nebraska acad. sci. 1894-95: 13.
*Cf., however, the high value for the Harlan County tuff (analysis 10, Table X).
J Another analysis of tuff from near Chemnitz gives 3.90 per cent EgO (Knop —
Neues Jahrb. Min. 1859: 575).
»G. H. Williams— Neues Jahrb. Min. Beilagebd. 2: 630 (1883).
» Analysis 6, Table I. Griffiths (Chem. news 88: 231 [1903]), found 0.20 per cent
P a 5 , and Wiechmann (Science (n. s.) 15 : 910-911 [1902]) found traces of phosphorus
in Pelee dust. Hillebrand and Steiger (loci citati, on p. 156) each found 0.18 per
cent P a O a in the West Indian dust.
o Analysis 18, Table X.
V Analysis 19, Table X.
9 Analysis 23, Table XI. Cf . also the trace of phosphorus in the sample from Mar-
quette, Mich, (analysis 24, Table XI).
158 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
der Burg," and in Vesuvius dust by Bruttini* and Paris/ and is
probably quite generally present in small amounts. 4
VOLCANIC DUST IN THE SOIL.
The potash, phosphorus, and other elements contained in volcanic
dust are rapidly and easily made available for plants on account of
the comparatively great solubility and rapidity of disintegration of
the material, due both to its chemical composition and its physical
nature. The glassy matter* is easily attacked by the soil solution,
and the irregular form of the particles exposes a great surface to this
action. The general loose structure and prevailingly good floccula-
tion of volcanic dusts, caused by the uniform size and irregular shape
of the particles, promotes the absorption and retention of moisture
and allows the rapid movement of the soil solution and its contact
with every soil particle. This not only promotes the disintegration
of the particles, but itself assists the growth of plants in the resulting
soil.
It is to be expected, therefore, that volcanic dusts would make
excellent soils/ and such is actually found to be the case. Volcanic
regions are well known to be exceedingly fertile, as, for instance,
Java, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands, the vicinity of Naples, etc.*
This, of course, is partly due to the fertility of soils derived from the
decay of lavas and pumice, but no small share, at least in the main-
tenance of fertility, must be ascribed to the continual accretion of
volcanic dust. The permanent fertility of the soils of the Limagne
(France) is believed by Alluard* to be due to blown volcanic ash.
The beds of volcanic tuff in the western United States make excellent
soil and are under cultivation in many localities. Ancient soils
formed from volcanic dust have been found interstratified with
unaltered material in several beds of tuff/ indicating that the vol-
canic action must have been interrupted long enough to permit the
formation of a soil and the production of a vegetation which was later
destroyed by a renewal of the volcanic activity and covered by a
deposition of a new layer of dust. So valuable are volcanic materials
o Rec. trav. chim. Pays- Baa 2: 296-303 (1883). Cf., however, note *, p. 156.
b Boll, quindic. Soc. agric. ital. 11: 343 (1906). 0.64 per cent P,0 6 was found.
cStaz. sperim. agrar. ital. 41: 321-328 (1908).
d Cf. the presence of apatite in several volcanic dusts, p. 153.
« In general about 90 per cent of the whole. See p. 152.
/ Shaler— Ann. rept. U. S. Geol. surv. 12, I: 242 (1892).
Cf. Shaler— loc. cit., pp. 243-244; Semmola— Atti 1st. incorr. Naples 8: 100-103
(1848); Hill— Trans. N. Z. inst. 19: 387 (1886); de Grazia— Ann. R. Scuola agr.
Portici (2) 7:13-26(1907).
ACompt. rend. 100: 1081-1083 (1885).
i E. g., in Alaska, by Brooks (Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. 21, II: 366 [1900]), and
in Hawaii by Brauner (Amer. jour. sci. (4) 16: 315-316 [1903]).
• VOLCANIC DUST IN THE SOIL. 159
to the soil that Rowe° has suggested the use of the Montana dusts as
fertilizers; and Russell 6 believes that the high potash content and
great fertility of the soils of Nez Percys County, Idaho, may be due to
the volcanic dust which is abundant in this region. Showers of vol-
canic dust, when not so heavy as to smother or mechanically injure
the plants, have no injurious effect on vegetation. In fact, exactly
the opposite is the case. The fertilizing action of dust from the
West Indian volcanoes on the soil of the surrounding islands, espe-
cially Barbados, has been noticed both after the eruption of 1812 e
and after that of 1902.<* The great dust falls following the eruptions
of Santa Maria did no harm, except where the plants were mechan-
ically injured, and the fertility of the soil seemed to be increased by
the volcanic increment.* On the island of Krakatoa, where all
vegetation was destroyed by the eruption, plants had begun to take
hold within less than three years, in spite of the fact that even the
seeds had to be brought from elsewhere by the wind and sea and by
birds/ In 1902 the island had again become largely covered with
vegetation.* On the surrounding islands the Krakatoa dust did no
harm to vegetation, except where the fall was heavy enough to pro-
duce mechanical injury.*
As a soil material, therefore, volcanic dust is of considerable
importance — an importance which has been recognized by but few
investigators of soil formation. Not only are there large areas in the
neighborhood of active volcanoes where recent volcanic dust forms
the main constituent of the soil, but there are other much larger areas
over which the soil has been, and is being, formed from volcanic tuffs,
and still other and yet larger areas over wliich wind-borne dust of
recent or ancient volcanic origin is added to the soil in sufficient quan-
tity to be worthy of consideration, particularly as a source of potas-
sium. Those soils which have never been affected by the products
of volcanic action are probably far in the minority. In our own
country the volcanic soils of the Northwest form no inconsiderable
portion of the arable lands.
« Univ. of Montana Bull. 17: 11 (1903).
6 U. S. Geol. eurv. Wat. supp. pap. 53: 34 (1901).
c Kingsley — At last, vol. 1, p. 90 (1871), through Belt, The naturalist in Nicaragua,
p. 354 (1888).
d Anderson and Flett— Proc. Roy. soc. 70: 429 (1902); Teall— Quart, jour. Geol.
roc. 58 : 370 (1902). N
« Sapper— Centbl. Min. 1903 : 66-70.
/ Treub— Ann. Jardin bot. Buitenzorg 7: 213-223 (1888).
flPenzig— Ann. Jardin bot. Buitenzorg (2) 3: 92-113 (1902). See also Ernst—
Vierteljs. naturf. Ges. Zurich 52: 289-363 (1907); and D. H. Campbell— Amer. nat.
43: 449-460 (1909). On the analogous case of the re vegetation of Pelee and La
Soufriere after the recent eruptions see: Hovey — Bull. Amer. geog.soc. 40: 662-679
(1908), 41: 72-83 (1909).
* Nature 29: 437(1884).
160 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WMTD.
Both in the past and in the present the winds have been the great
agents in the distribution of volcanic materials. The area covered
by material actually thrown from volcanoes is comparatively very
small, but the winds extend this radius many hundredfold and it is
really because of their assistance that volcanic material is of import-
ance to soils in general. Even when the material has once been
deposited the wind's action thereon has not necessarily ceased. Many
beds of loose tuff in the western United States, laid down and perhaps
buried in former geologic time, have been exposed by changing con-
ditions and are again being attacked by the wind and being redis-
tributed over the now existing surface. Among the translocating
activities of the wind the movement of volcanic dust is by no means
the least important.
THE WIND TRANSPORT OF VEGETABLE MATTER.
The material carried by the wind is not entirely mineral, but
includes as well much vegetable matter, which is, of course, of impor-
tance in supplying humic materials to the soil. On account of their
low specific gravity and usually irregular form fragments of vegetable
origin are transported with peculiar ease, and especially is this true
of the finer dusts. Samples of blown dusts of all sorts invariably
contain plant fibers, pollen, and other organic substances, as has
been shown by many microscopical and chemical examinations.
Among 50 samples of sirocco dust examined by Macagno and Tac-
chini° 25 contained more organic matter than inorganic, 18 were
predominantly inorganic, and 7 had approximately equal quantities
of organic and inorganic constituents. The presence of organic
matter in sirocco dusts has also been noticed by Sementini, 6 Reissek, e
Arago, d Bouis,* Silvestri/ von Lasaulx,? von John,* Passerini,'
Palmeri,' Becke,* Chauveau,' and Fruh. w Organic material is pres-
ent in cryokonite* and has been found in volcanic dust, in dust
a Ann. meteor, ital. (2) 1:73 (1879); see also pp. 69-71.
&Giorn. fis. chim. stor. nat. (2) 1: 28-32 (1818).
c Ber. Mitt. Freunden Naturw. 4 : 153 (1848).
d Oeuvres completes 12: 468-470 (1869).
eCompt. rend. 56: 972 (1863).
/ Atti Accad. Gioenia Catania (3) 12: 140-141 (1878).
Tschermak's min. Mitt. 3: 526, 529 (1880).
*Verh. geol. Reichsanst. 1896: 259.
<Atti R. Accad. econ.-agr. Georg. Florence (4) 24: 139, 142, 152 (1901).
/Rend. R. Accad. sci. fis. Naples (3) 7: 156 (1901).
* Anz. Kaiserl. Akad. Wise. Vienna 38: 108 (1901).
'Ann. Soc. m6t6or. France 51: 75 (1903).
w Met. Zs. 20: 174(1903).
» von Lasaulx— Tschermak's min. Mitt. 3 : 522 (1880). For definition of cryokonite
see p. 103.
o Nordenskidld— Met. Zs. 11: 206-208(1894); Rennie and Higgin— Trans. Roy . soc.
South Aust. 27: 205-206 (1903); Woolnough— Ibid., p. 207; Janeifc— Met. Zs. 23s
224 (1906); Paris— Staz. sperim. agrar. ital. 41: 321-328 (1908).
Bui 68, Burtlu of Soili. U S D«pt of Ajr.culb
THE WIND TRANSPORT OF VEGETABLE MATTES. 161
collected from snow on top of Ben Nevis, in dust from the cathedral
tower at Nancy, France, 6 in dust fallen in Indiana in January, 1892,*
and m dust from the south Russian dust storms. d Tissandier found
that ordinary atmospheric dust contained from 25 per cent to 34 per
cent of combustible organic matter/ The falls of pollen, etc., which
occasionally occur are mentioned on page 91. Living spores or
•seeds of plants are always present in air dusts, and indeed many
plants are largely disseminated in this way.'
The wind distribution of seeds, spores, etc., is not, however, of
much importance to the soil, for the amount of vegetable matter so
supplied is negligibly small. Much more important is the blowing
about of general plant dfibris, and especially of dead leaves from the
deciduous trees. Were it not for the action of the wind on such
material a plant could supply with humus only the soil immediately
beneath it. As it is, what might be called the humifying radius of
the plant is greatly enlarged, and the distribution of humus through-
out the soil is made much more uniform.
The quantity of such dead plant material which is blown about by
the wind is a matter of common knowledge, so obvious, in fact, that
it has quite generally escaped attention. It consists not only of
fallen leaves, but of small twigs, flowers, fruits, seeds, etc. In
some cases, as, for instance, the "tumble weeds," whole plants are
blown and rolled over the surface.
There is no question that the importance of such vegetable matter
to the soil is very great indeed. It has even been argued that
the material derived from its decay is in large part responsible for
the growth in thickness of certain deposits and the resulting burial
of articles left on the surface as described on pages 106-108. This,
however, seems unlikely, since the vegetable matter tends constantly
to disappear, leaving no permanent residue except the very small
amount of ash which it contains. The final products of the decay
and oxidation are mainly gaseous. It is not probable that blown
, _ - ■—- ■_ i j. .
« Murray and Renard— Nature 29: 591 (1884). For another instance of organic
matter in dust from snow Bee Nature 27 : 496 (1883).
b Thoulet^-Compt. rend. 146: 1347 (1908).
cSomerB— Science 21: 304 (1893).
d KlossovsW— Ciel et terre 15 : 564-666 (1895).
«Les Poussieres de Pair, p. 11, 16 (1877).
/On the dissemination of plants by the wind see: De Candolle — Geographic botan-
ique raisonnee, vol. 2, p. 613-615(1855); Keraer — Zs. deut. Alpenver. 2: 144-172
(1871); Hildebrand— Die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen, 1873; Beccari — Malesia,
vol. 1, p. 216-224 (1878); E. J. Hill— Amer. nat. 17: 812-818 (1883); Kerner—
Natural history of plants, 1st English ed., 2: 848-862 (1895); Kronfeld— 8tudien
Qber die Verbreitungsmittel der Pflanzen, 1900; Vogler— Flora 89: 1-137 (1901);
Schimper— Pknt geography, Fisher's trans., pp. 79-80 (1903); Ernst— New Flora of
Krakatoa, Eng. ed., pp. 60-68 (1908).
53952°— Bull. 68-11 11
162 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
vegetable matter would cause any great growth of soil, but its
importance is in no wise lessened by this fact. Rather is it increased,
since the very fact that the organic matter of the soil tends to disap-
pear makes it extremely important that this loss be made up by a
continual supply of new material.
The distances to which organic matter is carried by the wind are
usually not great. The activity is rather in distributing the humus-
forming material over a territory a little wider than it could other-
wise reach, than in supplying it to regions at a distance. It is true
that individual leaves, light seeds, etc., may be carried considerable
distances by the wind as is instanced by the finding of leaves on
mountains and especially on the Alpine glaciers at distances up to
12 miles from the nearest possible source. a The soil mentioned on
page 105 which was collected by Mr. Robinson from the top of Mount
Monadnock in New Hampshire contains numerous twigs of spruce,
though the upper limit of this tree is far below the summit. Making
all possible allowances for the action of animals, many of these twigs
must be regarded as carried by the wind to the situation in which
they were found. This soil contains 49.95 per cent of organic matter,
much of which is undoubtedly blown from the country below, though
a part is probably formed in situ by mosses and similar plants whose
spores have been carried up by the wind and whose growth is encour-
aged by the moist condition of the soil which occurs in rock basins
which collect and hold the rain. All largely eolian soils in the humid
regions are likely, however, to contain much organic matter, 6 as is
seen in the "soils" already mentioned which are formed by the
accumulation of blown material on the roofs of houses, in rain
spouts, etc.
TRANSLOCATION IN GENERAL— SUPPLEMENTARY ACTION OF
THE AGENTS.
In the first three chapters of this bulletin the various translocating
agents were discussed, and in the succeeding chapters one of these —
wind — has been shown to have a much greater importance than is
usually assigned to it. For purposes of discussion it is necessary to
treat the various agents separately and to discuss the work of each
a Schibler— Jahrb. Schweizer Alpenclubs 33: 286 (1897-8); Vogler— Flora 89:
83-86 (1901). Koldewey found leaves on the arctic ice 8 miles from the coast (German
Arctic Exped. of 1869-70, vol. 1, 120 [1874]). Cf. also the recorded "rains" of hay,
seeds, etc., which must have come from a distance (Phipson — Compt. rend. 52:
108-109 [1861]; Benson— Nature 12: 279 [1875]; Nature 12: 298 [1875]; Galton—
Nature 44: 294 (1891); Berti, in Tacchini— Rend. Accad. Lincei (5) 6: 299 [1897];
Symons's Meteor. Mag. 32 : 106-107 [1897]).
& Fischer suggests that the high content of organic matter of the black earth (" tirs ")
of Morocco may be due to accretions of vegetable dust (Mitt. geog. Ges. Hamburg 18 :
154 [1902]). It may be permissible to ascribe a similar origin to the organic matter of
the chernozem.
TRANSLOCATION IN GENEBAI* 168
as though it were distinct and independent, but the translocation
which actually takes place in nature is seldom so simple as this. All
the agents, and especially wind and water, are constantly interacting
in the most complex manner, with the result that nearly all translo-
cated material has been moved by both wind and water and fre-
quently by other agents as well. a Sometimes the movement is
mainly eolian; sometimes it is mainly aqueous, but almost always
it is something of both. The translocation going on on the earth's
surface is the result of all the actions of all the various agencies — a
system of actions usually so complex as to defy detailed analysis.
This mutual action of wind and water is well exhibited in translo-
cation by rivers. In the first place, much of the river's load is sup-
plied by eolian action. It has been pointed out on page 20 that the
river itself is able to attack only its bed and banks, and that its
detrital load is supplied mainly by rain wash and by the wind. In
some regions the wind supplies nearly all the load. 6 The assistance
of the wind does not, however, stop with the supply of material, but
is of even greater importance in distributing over the flood plain
the material which the river has brought down. All streams throw
up sand and mud along their banks and deposit sediment during
freshets, all of which material soon dries and is scattered by the wind
over the surrounding country, this being the only way in which the
detrital material of a river can be distributed over territory not
reached by its waters. c Sometimes this material is sandy and is
supplied in sufficient quantities to form dunes, producing the well-
known river dime systems, which in general are composed of material
representing the whole drainage area of the river.
The same conditions apply to coastal dunes. They are made up
of material from hundreds of sources — the detritus supplied by
rivers, dfibris from the wave erosion of the coast, bits of shells, frag-
ments of pumice and volcanic dust, etc. Sometimes the sands of the
coastal dunes have been so much worked and pounded by the waves
that practically nothing but quartz remains, but usually the sands
are newer and show traces of their origin, or rather of their origins.
Cobb* thinks that the dune sands of Hatteras are glacial debris
a The origin of loess, as discussed on pp. 129-141, furnishes an excellent example of
this complexity.
*See Shaler— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 247 (1899).
«For examples of this process of wind distribution of river-borne sediment, see Hew-
itt— Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. 7: 22-24 (1892); Blake— Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 53 1
241-242 (1897); Walther— Wttstenbildung, p. 119 (1900); Lomas— Kept. Brit. Assoc.
1903: 654-656; Davis— Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 26: 60-63 (1905);
Ferrar— Survey Notes (Egypt) 1: 18-20 (1906); Huntington— Pulse of Asia, p. 103
(1907); Stein— Ancient Khotan, pp. 124-125, 198, Appendix G (1907).
4 Jour. Elisha Mitchell sci. soc. 22: 17-19 (1906), Nat. geog. mag. 17: 314, note
(1906). For the similar case of the dune sands of Holland, see Retgere — Ann. ficole
polyt. Delft 7: 1-50 [1891]. Gf. also: Thoulet— Compt. rend. 144: 93&-940 (1907).
164 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
from the New England granites, scraped off by the ice sheet and worked
southward along the coast by waves set up by the prevailing winds.
A very striking example of the complexity of movement displayed
by translocated material was observed by Sickenberger. A horn-
blende-rich sand was produced by the weathering of the hornblende
granites of Assuan in Egypt, was carried down to the Mediterranean
by the Nile, moved by the coastal current 150 miles to the east to
El Arish, where it was thrown upon the beach, picked up by the
winds, and blown inland in a line of dunes. This was a journey of
over 700 miles by river, ocean, and wind. 6 There is no reason to
believe that this case is unusual in anything except the possibility
of identifying the material and tracing the path it had traveled. 6
The dunes represent only the coarser material deposited by the
river. The finer mud and silt are blown clear away (when dried) and
widely distributed over the valley and the adjoining uplands. Virlet
d'Aoust d (as already mentioned) found high on the mountains of
Mexico eolian soils entirely composed of the material of the river-
deposited alluvium of the valleys.
EXCESSIVE BLOWING OF THE SOIL.
The moderate amount of wind movement of the soil which is normal
to most agricultural areas is, on the whole, beneficial, because of the
resultant increase (or maintenance) of heterogeneity and the supply
of minerals which might otherwise be deficient. e Under exceptional
conditions, however, it is possible for the erosive activity of the
wind to become so excessive that both the soil and the plants it sup-
ports are seriously injured/ The damage caused in some places by
a Quoted by Walther— Wustenbildung, p. 118 (1900).
& On the similar case of magnetite from the Pyrenees in the dunes of Gascony, see
Fabre— Bull. geog. hist, descrip. 1902: 132-148, and authorities there cited.
c On the possibility of identifying sand grains (by their internal character) and
tracing their history, see Mackie — Trans. Edinb. geol. soc. 7: 148-172 (1897).
<*Bull. Soc. geol. France (2) 15: 129 etseq. (1857).
' Another occasionally important beneficial effect of wind action on the soil is the
improvement of physical condition due to the addition of blown sandB to heavy clays.
For examples, see p. 124 above.
/ For instances of damage by extreme blowing of soil see T. D wight — Travels in New
England, vol. 2, p. 494, vol. 8, p. 91-92 (1822); Studer— Lehrbuch der physische
Geographie und Geologie, vol. 1, p. 334 (1844); Pacific Rural Press 11: 37, 60 (1876),
19: 200(1880), etal.; Reid— Geol. Mag. (3)1: 167(1884); H.T. Fuller-Bull. Geol. soc.
Amer. 8: 148-149 (1892); W. 0. Knight— Wyo. agr. expt. Btat. Bull. 14: 104 (1893);
F. H. King— Wise. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 42, 1894; Vysotskfl— Trudy Eksped. Ross.
Lftsn. Dept. 1: 33-48 (1894); Abbe— Mon. weath. rev. 23: 19 (1895); Bieletskfl—
Mater, isuch. russ. pochv 9: 1-40 (1895); Payne— Col. agr. expt. stat. Ann. rept. 9:
184 (1896); Shaler— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 245-252 (1899); Rept. Roy. comm. on
condition of crown tenants, New South Wales 1: viii, 24-26 (1901); Woeikof— Ann.
g6og. 10: 113 (1901); Emeis— Allg. Forst.-Jagdztg. 78: 401-414 (1902); McMaster—
Jour. Proc. Roy. soc. N. S. Wales 37: 138-145 (1903); Heintz— Poln. entsik. russ.
EXCESSIVE BLOWING OF THE SOIL. 165
wind removal of soil is quite comparable to that produced in other
localities by water erosion, and consists not only in the loss of the
soil material itself, which is usually relatively unimportant, but
much more largely in the removal of soil from around the roots of
plants, causing their death or loosening them, so that they themselves
can be blown away. The extent to which this removal of the soil
may sometimes go is illustrated by the tree shown in Plate II, figure 1,
which has had several feet of soil removed from around its roots. The
great dust storm of May 6-7, 1889, in the Middle West removed the
soil in some places to a depth of 5 or 6 inches. 6 Noble c records the
wind removal of 1 foot of soil from an area of over 100,000 acres in
Australia. During the dust storms of the spring of 1894 in the south
of Russia the soil was removed to an average depth of about 6 inches,
and nearly 200 square miles under cereal crops were ruined. 4 Ac-
cording to information obtained by Huntington 4 the spring winds
in the Turfan basin (Asia) not infrequently remove 2 or 3 inches of
soil.
selak. khoz. 8: 50-51 (1903); Kearney— U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. plant ind. Bull. 86 1
15, 22 (1905); I. A. Williams— Iowa Geol. surv. 16: 497 (1905); Hart and
Gleason— Bull. 111. State Lab. nat. hist. 7 : 164-171 (1906); Hertzberg— Deut. landw.
Presse 83: 368-369 (1906); Prometheus 18: 54-55 (1906); Hilgard— Soils, p. 9,
(1907); C. G. Hopkins and Pettit— 111. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 123: 246 (1908); W. H.
Stevenson, Schaub, and Snyder— Iowa agr. expt. stat. Bull. 95: 14 (1908); G. B.
Smith— U. S. Dept. agr. Fanners' Bull. 323: 15-18 (1908); Reagan— Science (n. s.)
28: 653-654 (1908); Hazen— U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 130: 51-63
(1908); Gill-Jour. Dept. agr. South Aust. 11: 1028-1031 (1908); Wright— ibid. 18 1
235-237 (1909); Oklahoma City Farm journal, March 15, 1909; Scofield and Rogers—
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 157, especially p. 10 (1909); Hunter— ibid.
Pub. No. 495 (1909); Alway— Nebraska agr. expt. stat. Bull. Ill, 1909; Beadnell—
An Egyptian oasis, p. 198-211 (1909); Simmons— Nebraska Farmer 49: 431 (1910);
Helder— Bull. Dry Farming Congress 3: 318 (1910); and Field Operations, Bureau
of Soils, 1900: 390; 1901: 528, 544; 1902: 470, 471, 473, 743, 753, 781-782; 1903 1
118, 150, 174, 954, 1035, 1054, 1059, 1270-1272; 1904 : 63, 699, 760, 782-783, 902-904,
1140-1141; 1905: 769, 901, 935; 1906: 268, 469, 571, 579, 748, 843-844, 938, 976,
979; 1907: 319-320, 341, 635, 823-824, 915-916, 918, 921.
« This tree stands in Whiteside County, 111. A photograph of another and even
more striking example which occurs in central Australia is given by Benbow — Agr.
gaz. New South Wales 12, facing p. 1252 (1901). Other photographs of similar
phenomena are given by Flerov — Schr. naturf. Ges. Univ. Dorpat 10, I: facing p.
296 (1902); Coulter— Proc. Ind. acad. sci. 1906: 127; Britton— Bull. Torroy bot.
club 30: plate 25, and p. 573 (1903); and Zavitz — Rept. on reforestation of waste
lands in southern Ontario, p. 8, 28 (1909).
& Amer. geol. 3: 398 (1889).
<Mon. weath. rev. 32: 364 (1904). On the damage by soil drift in Australia see
also Rept. of Commission on condition of crown tenants, New South Wales 1 s 24-28
(1901).
d Klossovskfl— Ciel et terra 15 1 661 (1895); Heintz—Poln. entsik. russ. selsk.
khoz. 8:50-51(1903).
t Pulse of Asia, p. 300 (1907).
166 . MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Nor does the damage stop with the removal of the soil. The
blown material collects on the fields to leeward and frequently causes
more injury to the crops upon which it is deposited than was caused
by the removal from its original location. Grain and other standing
crops are especially liable to damage in this Way, though in this case
it is probable that the damage is due not so much to the deposit of
the blown material on the plants as to the cutting action of the
flying grains of sand. a Blown sand has been known to injure trees
severely and even to kill them, and its effect on green plants is nat-
urally even more injurious. In addition, however, to the cutting
action there is a good deal of actual burial of young plants growing
close to the ground.
Damage by both erosion and deposition may occur on the same
field, as is shown in Plate III, where some strawberry plants have
been blown entirely out of the soil while others have been buried.
The damage done in this case can be better appreciated by com-
parison with Plate IV, which shows a portion of the same field planted
just before the photograph was taken, and not yet subjected to
severe wind action. This portion of the field is seen also in the
upper left-hand corner of Plate III. Plate V shows a field on the
same soil, where the blown sand has drifted in between the rows of
plants.
In all cases the damage by blowing is more largely to the crop
than to the soil. Plants are blown out, buried, or mechanically
injured, but the soil itself is usually not greatly affected. In some
cases, of course, soil is blown entirely away in sufficient quantity to
constitute a serious loss, but such cases are not the rule, and even
then the loss is usually not permanent, being made up sooner or
later by a balancing deposition; and, on account of the usual fer-
tility of the wind-deposited material, such deposition is in most
cases beneficial to the soil, whatever may be its effect on the crop. 6
In some few cases the deposited material may be injurious, as, for
instance, certain industrial dusts, the dust of smelter smoke, etc. c
a Hooker— Gardener's chronicle (2) 9: 12 (1878); Paletskfl— Fixation of sand (Ru$-
iian), p. 22 (1901); Udden— Pop. sci. mon. 49: 663 (1896); Cowles— Bot. gaz.
27: 108 (1899); Harshberger— Proc. Acad, nat. sci. Phila. 1900: 626; Brock-
mann-Jerosch and Heim — Vegetations-bilder 6, Heft 4 (1908); Olsson-Seffer — Bot.
gaz. 47: 116-117 (1909). Even blown snow crystals have been known to kill trees
(C. King— Exploration Fortieth Parallel, vol. 1, p: 527 [1878]).
& When the subsoil is well weathered and of good quality, and when the generation
of humic matters is easy, even a not too great removal may be beneficial by progres-
sively lowering the zone of root activity and adding fresh soil material thereto. See
Menzel— Kosmos 2: 239 (1905).
cHaselhoff and Lindau — Die Besch&digung der Vegetation dutch Rauch, 1903;
Haselhoff— Landw. Vers. Stat. 67: 157-206 (1907), 69: 477-482 (1908); Fuhling's
landw. Ztg. 57: 609-615 (1908); Ebaugh— Jour. Amer. chem. soc. 29: 951-970 (1907);
Frazer— Trans. Amer. inst. min. engs. 38: 498--555 (1908); Cohen and Ruston —
Nature 81: 468-469 (1909); Formad— Ann. Kept. Bur. Animal Industry, U. S.
Dept. Agr. 25: 237-268 (1908).
EXCESSIVE SLOWING OF THE SOIL. 167
In this last case, however, the observed damage has been shown"
to be more largely due to the gaseous constituents of the smoke
than to its suspended solids, and in any case the injury to the soil
from such sources is of vanishing importance. 6 It has been claimed
by Tacchini ° that sirocco dust is injurious to plants upon which it
falls, but from his statements it seems probable that the injuries
were due rather to the hot, dry winds which accompanied the falls
of dust than to the dust itself. It has already been pointed out
that the material carried by dust storms is in general markedly ben-
eficial to plants and to the soil, and there is no reason why the prop-
erties of the sirocco dust should be exceptional.* But, though the
injury to the soil is seldom grave or permanent, excessive blowing is
nevertheless very serious and very harmful because of the direct
effect on the crop. This is particularly the case if the blowing occurs
on recently seeded fields or where the plants are young, and unfor-
tunately there are many parts of this country in which violent winds
are to be expected just at this season. Throughout the arid and
semiarid West, now being rapidly brought into cultivation, soil blow-
ing has been found a most serious problem, and is demanding the
best efforts of agriculturists in the attempt to minimize its ravages.
In these regions nearly all the types of soil are likely to be affected,
but in the more humid areas of the East, wind damage is mainly
confined to sands, and in fact even in arid climates the maximum
of blowing is usually encountered on such soils and on those com-
posed of silt particles more or less uniform in size. The greater
blowing of sandy soils is largely ascribable to the moisture relations
already discussed on page 130 in connection with the wind-damaged
sands of Anne Arundel County, Md.
In Table XII are given the mechanical analyses of a number of
soils which have been found to blow badly/ The analysis of a soil
« Haywood— U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. chem. Bull. 89, 1905, and Bull. 113, 1908,
with references there cited.
6 See Widtsoe— Utah agr. expt. stat. Bull. 88: 149-164, 177-179 (1903); Haywood—
Science (n. s.) 26: 476 (1907).
cCompt. rend. Assoc, franc, a van. sci. 7: 477 (1878). Ivchenko speaks also of a
" burning " of vegetation by the blown dust of the steppes (Ann. geol. min. Rubs.
7, 1: 230 [1904]). On injury by the "mgla" or dust fog of southeastern Russia see
Ivanov— Viestn. selsk. khoz. 1903 No. 9.
<* Plants are sometimes injured by air-deposited dusts through the "setting" of
the latter into an impervious or rigid coating on the leaves and other parts, clogging
the stomata and interfering with growth. This has been observed in the case of
volcanic dust by Sands (Agr. news 5 : 381 [1906]) and Bruttini (Boll, quindic. Soc.
agric. ital. 11: 343 [1906]), and in the case of dust from a cement mill by Peirce
(Science [n. r.] 30 : 652-654 [1909]).
<Noe. 1 to 4 are analyses already published by the Bureau of Soils, as follows:
No. 1, Field Operations 1901: 529; No. 2, ibid. 1907: 916; No. 3, ibid. 1906:
S45; No. 4, ibid. 1906: 571. Sample No. 5 was collected by the writer. No. 6 was
furnished by Mr. T. H. Means, U. S. Reclamation Service. No. 7 was furnished by
Mr. 0. K. McClelland, superintendent of the Kansas experimental farm at Hays, to
whom 1 am also indebted for information with regard to soil blowing in this locality.
(See also Hazen, loo. cit. on p. 165.)
168
MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
from the Maryland locality, just mentioned, has already been givfen
in Table I, on page 30. Nos. 1, 2, 5, and 6 are typical of the easily
attacked sands, which are of frequent occurrence. No. 6 also con-
tains some volcanic dust, which makes it still more susceptible to
attack. Nos. 3 and 4 represent the fairly uniform fine sands which
Table XII. — Mechanical analyses of soils subject to blowing.
Constituent.
Ven-
tura
County,
Cal.
Gravel (2 to 1 mm.)
Coarse sand (1 to 0.5 mm.)
Medium sand (0.5 to 0.25 mm.).
Fine sand (0.25 to 0.1 mm.)
Very flue sand (0.1 to 0.06 mm.)
Sflt (0.05 to 0.005 mm.)
Clay (below 0.005 mm.)
1.
2.5
10.2
37.1
31.1
10.0
4.0
1.9
Mini-
doka,
Idaho.
a.
0.1
0.5
16.7
61.9
8.5
1.4
2.6
Blue
Earth
County,
Minn.
Okla-
homa
tCounty,
Okla.
S.
1.3
5.5
64.7
9.8
10.8
8.3
4.
0.3
2.7
15.5
60.9
14.7
3.8
2.3
Her-
miston,
Oreg.
7.6
17.8
52.5
21.4
.4
.5
Fallon,
Nev.
1.5
14.0
15.1
42.5
13.4
10.5
3.0
Hays,
Kan*.
7.
1.0
.2
1.5
14.0
65.8
17.8
have proven quite troublesome at several points in the humid
regions. No. 7 is of the silty type, which blows badly when too dry
or lacking in organic matter. In this soil the content of so-called
"colloidal" clay,° as distinguished from material which is simply
less than 0.005 mm. in diameter, is probably very low.
Of course the mechanical composition of a soil is not by any means
the only factor affecting its susceptibility to blowing, and in fact in
many cases it is not even the controlling one. The magnitude and
constancy of the water content, the presence or absence of organic
matter, and other less important factors come into play, and indeed
in practice the occurrence or nonoccurrence of excessive blowing is
usually controlled by factors altogether external to the soil and in-
cluding as most important the strength and seasonal relationship of
the winds, the topography (with relation to the active winds), and the
character and permanence of the vegetal cover. The characteristics
of vegetation and of moisture in protecting soils from wind action
have already been fully discussed on pages 28 to 31.
The processes of cultivation naturally tend to increase the degree
of exposure of the soil to wind action, and in regions of strong
winds it not infrequently happens that when the soil is broken pre-
paratory to cultivation much of it is blown away. The removal of
the natural vegetal cover for purposes of cultivation is necessary,
and any soil loss which may be occasioned thereby must be regarded
as an unavoidable concomitant of agriculture, but the destruction
of the vegetation and consequent loss of soil is as often the result of
misuse of the land as of its use. For instance, the overworking of
oHilgaid— Soils, pp. 59-12 (1907).
EXCESSIVE BLOWING OF THE SOIL. 169
pasture land will often so thin the grass that, with the advent of a
dry season, it dies and erosion by both wind and water is greatly
increased.
Neither is the loss of soil which so often follows the initial clearing
of western lands always entirely unavoidable. The damage is fre-
quently due to clearing at the wrong season or to clearing in too large
portions or too long before the land is ready for crops. In areas
where soil drift is to be feared, the land should be exposed no more
than is necessary, and, if possible, never at the season of heaviest
winds. The native vegetation should be left on the land until every-
thing is ready for culture, and if the crop planted is at all slow-
growing, it will frequently pay to plant also some quick-growing and
easily rooted crop in order to tide over the period of exposure between
the clearing and the establishment of a more permanent crop (as,
e. g., alfalfa). Rye has been found useful in this way in some regions.
Often it will pay to adopt the expedient of clearing the land only in
alternate strips 20 to 30 feet wide and at right angles to the prevail-
ing direction of the dangerous winds. The strips of native vege-
tation thus left will protect the cleared strips until the latter can be
put into cultivation, and when this is accomplished the uncleared
strips may be cleared in their turn, being now protected by those
upon which the planted vegetation has taken hold. This scheme,
variously modified, has proven of great service in many cases.
On irrigated farms, where arrangements must be made for the dis-
tribution of water, the necessary leveling often forbids the leaving of
native vegetation, or clearing it only in strips. Even in these cases,
however, it will be found wise to clear in as small areas as circum-
stances will permit and to leave occasional strips of the native brush
wherever the configuration of the ground makes it possible. Tem-
porary cover crops will also be found useful, and in sage-brush sec-
tions the covering of the surface with the uprooted bushes has a
considerable protective value. By the use of such precautions and
the general exercise of common sense in the time and manner of
clearing, wind damage can be greatly reduced even on lands where
general clearing and leveling is deemed necessary.
The between-crop cultivation of years following that of initial
clearing must also be designed to leave the soil exposed as little as
possible, and that at the season when wind movement is as nearly as
possible at a minimum. It is usually not difficult to design a cultural
routine which will meet this requirement under any given conditions.
Fortunately, each year of use will, if the cultural scheme be properly
o Fuller— Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 3: 148-149 (1892); Forbes— Ariz. agr. expt. stat.
Bull. 38: 249-255 (1901); Burgess and Coffey— Field Operations Bureau of Soils
1904: 903; Worthen and Eckman— ibid. 1907: 824; Gill— Jour. Dept. Agr. South
Aust. 11: 1028-1029 (1908); Wright— ibid. 13: 235-237 (1909).
170 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
designed and carried out, add more organic matter to the soil, decrease
its sandiness, and put it in better shape to withstand the attack of the
wind. Wind drift is very largely a trouble of the new soils, and it is
largely because of the great amount of arid soil just now being broken
for use that the subject attracts so much present interest. How-
ever, if the cultural routine is to improve the soil it must be designed
with this in view, and on all sandy soils, arid and humid alike, the
danger of wind-drift should be always in mind in designing the
system of cultivation.
Another cause of wind damage has come with the recent spread
of the methods of "dry farming" over the semiarid West. A part
of these methods is the use of the dust mulch, and this use has brought
its accompanying disadvantage, for the surface layer of loose dust
thus produced is readily attacked by the wind, and the entire mulch
of a field may be stripped off by a single storm. a On soils where the
physical texture will permit, a granular or clod mulch may be main-
tained instead of one of dust. This not only decreases wind attack
but is more satisfactory in every way. But on sands and some
loams this is impossible, and in Lse cases, if wind damage is to
be feared, the mulch must be abandoned or the field covered with
straw or brush. Such a layer will furnish an efficient protection
and under it a dust mulch will rest undisturbed. _
This last procedure, however, belongs to a class of preventive •
agents whose expense precludes their use under ordinary circum-
stances. Here also belong the incorporation of clay with the sand, 5
the addition of large quantities of stable manure, etc. These things
are of unquestioned value, but too costly for most fields. In general
on soils which have been found in practice to be subject to serious
blowing the economical restriction and prevention of the evil is
likely to be largely a matter of properly arranging the cultural rou-
tine. Every effort should be made to maintain an adequate content
of organic matter and if possible to have the land covered during
the windy season with some close-growing crop which will keep the
wind from the soil surface. If the summer fallow is found to induce
extensive blowing, it can in many cases be abandoned in favor of a
leguminous crop which is afterwards plowed under, performing the
triple function of preventing wind erosion, adding organic matter,
and supplying nitrogen. Where a sufficient supply of irrigation *
water is available, easily blown soils should be kept moist during the l
«Hazen— U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. 130: 51-53 (1908).
& This is sometimes economically possible where the clay (or silt) can be added as
materia] suspended in irrigating water. (See Holmes and Mesmer — Field Operations,
Bureau of Soils, 1901: Plate LXXXIII; Mc Lend on and Jones— ibid. 1906: 579.)
In this case care must be taken to prevent injury to the soil through the deposition
thereonof an impervious layer of silt. See Forbes— Ariz. agr. expt. stat. Bull. 53, 1906.
EXCESSIVE BLOWING OF THE SOIL. 171
season when such damage is to be apprehended. In many cases
damage may be avoided by the proper timing of the plowing, harrow-
ing, and similar cultural operations, or by the employment of other
operations, such as rolling, etc., which tend to compact the surface. 9
Without full knowledge of the special local conditions, it is of
course impossible to say just what procedure will be best under any
particular set of circumstances. Climatic, biologic, and economic
factors must be taken into account, and the general principles as
above outlined must be modified and adjusted to each individual case.
There are unquestionably circumstances under which the prevention
of wind erosion is not possible, with due regard to economy; but even
in such cases the damage can usually be reduced by a little care and
forethought and at slight expense.
When the crop is valuable in relation to the land covered, it is fre-
quently advisable to employ lines of trees, hedges, fences, or other
obstacles which can act as wind-breaks. 5 If set sufficiently close
together they will entirely prevent damage to the crop, either by
wind erosion of the soil, by the drying action of hot winds, c or by the
direct mechanical action of the wind itself. 4 In a field protected by
wind-breaks there is, however, a considerable proportion of idle land,
consisting not only of the land actually occupied by the trees or
a On cultural operations to prevent blowing see King — Wis. agr. expt. stat. Bull.
42, 1894; Smith— U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers 1 bull. 323: 17-18 (1908); Reagan— Sci-
ence (n. s.) 28: 653-654 (1908); Wright— Jour. Dept. agr. South Aust. 13: 235-237
(1909); Brand and Westgate— U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bur. plant ind. Circ. 24 x 13-14
(1909).
* On. wind-breakB see Bernhardt— Landw. Jahrb. 3: 449-454 (1874); Lake— Wash-
ington agr. expt. stat. Bull. 3 : 60-63 (1892); King — Wisconsin agr. expt. stat. Bull. 42
(1894); Vysotskfl— Trudy Eksped. roes. Llesn. dept. 1: 33-48 (1894); Payne— Ann.
rept. Colorado agr. expt. stat. 9: 184 (1896); Card — Nebraska agr. expt. stat. Bull. 48
(1897); Kellogg— U. S. Dept. Agr. Forest service Bull. 52 (1904); Green— Farm
wind-breaks and shelter-belts (1906); Hertzberg— Deut. landw. Presse 33: 368-369
(1906); Smith— U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 323: 15-18 (1908); Hunter— U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind., Pub. 495 : 10-11 (1909). On the use of fences, etc., for
similar purposes see Hedin — Genom Khorasan och Turkestan, vol. 1', p. 239 (1892);
Millar— Chambers's Jour. (6) 8: 237 (1905); Willey— Sci. Amer. supp. 65: 120-121
(1908); Beadnell— An Egyptian oasis, pp. 207-210 (1909); Vischer— Geog. jour. 33:
241-266 (1909).
c King — loc. cit., thinks that wind damage is largely due to this drying action. See
also Hensele— Forech. Geb. Agr. Phys. 16: 311-364 (1893); Bfeletskfl— Mater, izuch.
russ. pochv 9: 1-40 (1895).
<* On the action of wind on vegetation see: Klinge — Bot. Jahrb. 11 * 304-312 (1889);
Hansen — Die Vegetation der ostfriesischen Inseln, 1901; Frtih— Jahresb. geog.-ethnog.
Gee. Zurich 1901-2 : 56-153; Flahault— G6ographie 5 : 357, 359-360 (1902) ; Hansen—
Flora 93: 33 (1904); De Bruyne — Handel. Vlaamsch natuurgeneeskundig Congres
8: 54-59 (1904); Geinitz— Naturw. Wochens. 19: 1025-1031 (1904); Devaux— Proces-
yerb. Soc. sci. phys. nat. Bordeaux 1904-5 : 58-62; Noll— Sitzungsb. naturh. Ver.
preuss. Rheinl. Westf. 1907(A): 58-68; Emeis— Allg. Forst.-Jagdztg. 83: 1-5 (1907).
172 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
hedges, but also of the contiguous shaded portions which are thus
rendered less productive; and this necessary loss of effective field
area restricts the use of wind-breaks to cases of intensive cultivation
of valuable crops. The use of wind-breaks must be thorough and
comprehensive if it is to be of value. A single line of trees may do
more harm than good, for sand drifting in from unprotected areas
will collect behind it and ruin both crop and land. This is well
illustrated in Plate II, figure 2, showing drift sand collected behind
a fence at Hermiston, Oreg.°
Where the use of the land is not desired, the only necessity being
to prevent its migration into adjoining areas, the usual methods of
dune fixation as already outlined may be employed, due regard being
had to the local conditions. In these cases grassing or f orestation,
usually the latter, will be found the best method of control. Similar
methods can be used to prevent wind scouring of road ditches, the
banks of irrigation canals and similar works. Here the various small
bushes, such as the willows and tamarisks, have proven very useful.
Rye has been much and successfully used for temporary fixation
until bushes could be successfully started.
CONCLUSION.
Of the many standpoints from which it would be possible to view
the known facts of the action of wind on the solid matter of the
earth's surface, but three have received attention in the foregoing
pages — the geologic, the agronomic, and that of the student of soil
formation. Of these the general geologic aspect as been accorded
but passing notice, and the agronomic, though briefly outlined in
the last chapter, must await detailed discussion elsewhere. The
main emphasis has been laid upon the action of the wind in soil
genesis, and this bulletin is an effort to present the pertinent facta
in their influence on our conception of the ways in which soils are
made and changed. If the argument here advanced can be condensed
into any one conclusion, it is simply that in these matters the wind
has no minor r61e, and is not the least of the great dynamic agents
which we now know affect the soil, and whose recognition has ren-
dered no longer tenable the older static conceptions. 6 But to say
that wind is important does not apply that it is most important.
There are many agents which move the soil, and the one which is
dominant here and now may not be dominant there and then. There
are, of course, individual cases in which the soil may be labeled as
mainly water-laid, or mainly eolian, or mainly the product of this
« Another photograph showing this condition is published in the Field Operation*
of the Bureau of Soils 1901 : Plate LXXXIII.
& Cameron—Jour, indue, eng. chem. It 806-810 (1909), Jour. phys. chem. 14 1 320-
372, 393-431 (1910).
CONCLUSION. 173
or that other agent, but the histories of most soils are not to be read
so easily, and general comparisons are of little value. To decide,
for example, whether in the whole world wind or water moves and
lays the more soil is quite impossible and almost equally useless.
The soil-forming actions of the wind may be classed roughly under
two headings, soil removal and soil mixing. In removal the wind
is but one of several agents (of which running water is probably
the chief) which, by removing weathered soil material from the
land surface into the sea, progressively expose the rocks beneath to
the processes of decay, enabling the maintenance of that balance
upon -which depends the permanence of the soil layer. Among
these- agents the wind is greatest only in areas of considerable aridity,
and even there it is by no means the sole active factor. From our
present viewpoint, the second or mixing action is of far greater and
more general importance. The carrying of soil material from place
to place across the land surface makes possible, as already discussed,
the existence in any particular soil of minerals not present in its
parent rocks, and is one cause of the well-known and remarkable
constancy with which the useful minerals occur in the soils of the
world. In this action the wind shows its greatest effectiveness. As
a mixer of soils already formed it yields to none. Nor is this action,
like the former, confined to arid lands. The foregoing pages should
serve to show that even in humid regions there is much movement of
soil by wind and that soil mixing by such movement is a factor
which must not be neglected. Wind action, both in removal and
transfer, must be regarded as an important item in the newly em*
phasized dynamic explanations of the soil and its fertility.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF EOLIAN GEOLOGY.
By S. G. Stfntz and E. E. Frbb.
The list of references following forms a fairly complete bibliography of eolian geology,
especially of deflation and those other phenomena closely connected with the subject-
matter of the bulletin. Little effort has been made to attain completeness on the
less closely related lines, such as the occurrence and distribution of dunes, dune con-
trol, and general geology of deserts, the occurrences of the loess, volcanic dust, etc.
Sufficient references are given on those subjects, however, to introduce the reader to
the literature, and it is believed that all important articles specifically concerned with
eolian action have been included. Many very important references, even in the lines
most completely covered, have been omitted, or cited only as "quoted by" another
writer, because it has been found impossible to verify them. Some few references
have been included without verification where the information was complete enough
in regard to them. Most writers, however, even of high scientific reputation, and
practically all reviewers, in making references either translate or omit titles altogether,
or give them only in brief, and give only date of publication or page references instead
of full and exact volume, page, and date statistics. For this reason many articles
which could not be found in American libraries have of necessity been omitted.
Practically every reference given has been verified by one of the two compilers,
usually by both, and the others are given only on good authority, such as the Royal
Society Index or the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.
The form of reference is that now generally used — author, title in full without ab-
breviation, standard abbreviation for the name of the periodical, and in the following
order: Series number in parentheses, volume number in heavy-faced type, colon,
followed by the inclusive pages of the article with its discussion, closing with the
date of publication in parentheses. Where volume numbers are not used, the year
is given in heavy-faced type, and in case of annuals, reports, etc., reading "for the
year ," the date of the volume rather than the usually later date of publication
is given in parentheses. In some cases, however, the latter is also given where the
year is used as volume number. "Part" or "Abtheilung" is expressed in Roman
notation. The abbreviations for the titles of journals used in the International Cat-
alogue of Scientific Literature have been found in some cases either too cumbrous or
not sufficiently clear, so that a system of our own has been employed. It is believed
that all are easily intelligible.
The titles are arranged chronologically under authors' names, and those in languages
other than modern European or Latin are given in translation into some one of these
languages, preferably the one in which an abstract is published, either with the
article or in a place cited. Translations are also given for the Russian and Hungarian
titles. Anonymous articles are entered under the titles with reference from the name
of the periodicals in which they were published. The locations of translations,
abstracts, and reviews, usually not mentioned in the text, are given whenever con-
venient and in the usual form.
The numbers following the references refer to the pages of the text upon which they
are cited. The location (in the text) of the most comprehensive analysis of any paper
is indicated by the italicizing of that page number. It is therefore possible not only
to use the bibliography as an author index to the bulletin, but also to obtain by the
joint use of it and the text synoptic information concerning many of the articles cited.
The literature of any special subject can be found through the subject index by
examining the pages of the text upon which that subject is treated.
Though every care has been taken to avoid errors, it is practically impossible to
make any bibliography either entirely correct or entirely complete. The compilers
will be very glad to be notified of any errors in citation, or of any additional titles
which should be included.
174
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
Page
A. R. [A. PJ Yxp^iueHie necKOB*. [Fixation of drift-sands.] Seifxe-
/f&jaraecx. raaera iGazette d 'agriculture J 1899, no. 30 75
Abbe, Cleveland. Remarkable hail. Mon. weath. rev. 22: 215 (1894) 91
Snow duet. Mon. weath. rev. 23: 15-19 (1895) 164
The duststorms of April 14 and 15. Mon. weath. rev. 23:130
(1895) 79
Duet storms in Burma and elsewhere. Mon. weath. rev. 29: 175
(1901) 80
Vertical components of atmospheric motions. Mon. weath.
rev. 81: 536-537 (1903) 34
> Aunorderung betrachtenswurdige Beobachtungen der Vermin-
derung der Durchsichtigkeit der Erdatmosphare in den Jahren 1902 und 1903.
Astron. Nachr. 165:286-288(1904) 11*
- The convection theory of whirlwinds. Mon. weath. rev. 34:
164-165(1906) 86,14&
Abbot, Henry Larcom. See Humphreys, Andrew Atkinson, and Abbot,
Henry Larcom.
Abel, Othenio. tfber sternfdrmige Erosionssculpturen auf Wustengerollen.
Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 51: 25-40 (1901) 25, 26
[Abels, H. F.] Aoeacrb, I\ [Sur une chute de poussiere d'Afrique dans le
gouvernement de Perm, le 12 mars, 1901.] O Bsma^eHiit A$pHKaHCKoJfc
mum b% IlepMcKoJfc ryoepHift, 12 Mapra 1901. [Bull. Soc. oural. nat.]
3anHCKH ypajibcsaro OdmecTBa joo/prrejieft ecTecTB03HaHin 25: 1-5 (1905) . . 89
Abercromby, Ralph. Observations on the motion of dust as illustrative of
the circulation of the atmosphere and of the development of certain cloud
forms. Quart, jour. Roy. meteor, soc. 16: 119-126 (1890) 63,84
About, Edmond. Le progres. Paris, 1864 54,75
Chapter 7 discusses dunes.
Aehlardl, Giovanni. See Passerini, Napoleone.
Aekroyd, William. On the circulation of salt and its bearing on geological
problems, more particularly that of the geological age of the earth, rroc.
Yorkshire geol. polyt. soc. n. s. 14: 401-421 (1901). Abet. Chem. news 83:
265-268(1901). 113
The circulation of salt in its relations to geology. Geol. mag.
(4)8:445-449(1901) IIS
On a principal cause of the saltness of the Dead Sea. Quart.
statement Palestine explor. fund. 1964: 64-66 113
Adamovlc, Lujo. Die Sandsteppen Serbiens. Bot. Jahrb. 33: 555-617
(1904) 71,76,77
Agassis, Alexander. A reconnoissance of the Bahamas and of the elevated
reefa of Cuba . . . January to April, 1893. Bull. Mus. comp. zool. Harv.
coll. 26: 1-203(1894) 144
A visit to the Bermudas in March, 1894. Bull. Mus. comp.
zool. Harv. coll. 26: 205-281 (1895) 144
The Florida elevated reef. Bull. Mus. comp. zool. Harv. coll.
28:29-62(1898) 144
Agassis, Louis Jean Rudolph. Animals [Infusoria] found in red snow. Rept.
Brit, assoc. 1840, Trans., 14; Amer. jour. sci. 41: 64 (1841) 91
Uber den Ursprung dee Loss. Neues Jahrb. Min. 1867:
676-680 127,130
— Report upon deep-sea dredgings in the Gulf Stream. Bull. Mus.
comp. zool. Harv. coll. 1: 363-386 (1869) 144
[Agfeer, M. V.l ArKem, M. B. [Fixation of drift-sands in Valuisk dis-
trict, Voronesn gouvernement] yKp&njieHie cmrpnm> necxoKb bt> Bajiyift-
ckomt> yfo^fc, BopoHOKCKoft rr6. [Messager de l'lndustrie forestier] JHbco-
npoMunueH. Bacthkxa. 18ft, no. 48 75
175
176 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
Page.
Agostlnl, Giovanni de. Sulla gragnuola di sal marino a Mantova. Ann. met.
Hal. (2)1: 3-8(1879) 113
[Agrlnskll, K. F.] ArpHHcirift, K. 6. [The meteorological conditions of the
appearance of "mgla" in the Saratov region during the 20 years from 1879 to
1898.] MereopojionraecK. jcjioblh noHBjieHin mivih bt> CapaTOBCK. Kpafe
aa nocjrB^Hie 20 jrfcn>, ct> 1879 no 1898 r. [La Semaine Territorial e de
Saratov] CapaTOBCK. 3*mck. Helium. 1898, supp. no. 49; 1-18 118
Alllo, Julius. Ober Strandbildungen des Litorinameeres auf der Insel Mant-
sinsaari. Bull. Comm. geol. Finiande 7, 1898. 43 p 54
Airy, Hubert. Microscopic examination of air. Nature 9: 439-440 (1874) 114
Aitken, John. On dust, fogs, and clouds [1880-1] Trans. Roy. soc. Edin-
burgh 30: 337-368 (1883) Abst. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 11: 14-18, 122-126
(1882) Nature 23: 195-197, 311-312, 384-385 (1881) Ill, 115
On the formation of small clear spaces in dusty air. Abst. Proc.
Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12: 440-448 (1883-84) Nature 29: 322-324 (1884). . , . Ill, 115
The remarkable sunsets. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 12:448-
450, 647-660 (1883-84) Ill, 115
Note on hoar-frost. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 14:121-125
(1886-87) 111,115
On improvements in the apparatus for counting the dust particles
in the atmosphere. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 1«: 134-172 ( 1888-89) Ill, 115
• On the numbers of dust particles in the atmosphere. Trans.
Roy. soc. Edinburgh 35: 1-19 (1889) Abst. Nature 37: 428-430 (1888) Ill, 115
- On the number of dust particles in the atmosphere of certain
places in Great Britain and on the continent, with remarks on the relation
between the amount of dust and meteorological phenomena. Proc. Roy. soc.
Edinburgh 17: 193-254 (1889-90) Abst. Nature 41: 394-396 (1890), 45: 299-301
(1892) 111,115
On a simple pocket dust-counter. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh
18: 39-^2 (1890-91) Ill, 115
On a method of observing and counting the number of water
particles in a fog. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 18: 259-262 (1890-91) Ill, 115
On the solid and liquid particles in clouds. Trans. Roy. soc.
Edinburgh36: 313-319 (1891) Abst. Nature 44: 279(1891) 111,115
- On the particles in fogs and clouds. Abst. Proc. Roy. soc.
Edinburgh 19: 260-263 (1891-92) Ill, 115
Particles in fogs and clouds. Trans. Roy. soc. Edinburgh
37:413-425(1893) 111,115
On the number of dust particles in the atmosphere of certain
places in Great Britain and on the Continent, with remarks on the relation
between the amount of dust and meteorological phenomena. Trans. Roy.
soc. Edinburgh 37: 17-49, 621-693 (1893-94) Abst. Nature 49: 544-546 (1894) 111, 115
• On some observations made without a dust counter on the hazing
effect of atmospheric dust. Proc. Roy. soc. Edinburgh 20: 76-93(1892-95). Ill, 115
Observations of atmospheric dust. U. S. Dept. Agr. Weather
bureau Bull. 11: 734-754 (1896) 111,115.
« On some nuclei of cloudy condensation. Trans. Roy. soc.
Edinburgh 39: 15-25 (1898) Ill, 115
Report on atmospheric dust. Trans. Roy. soc. Edinburgh
42: 479-489 (1902) Ill, 112, 115, 116
Albert, Fedenco. Las dunas del centro de Chili. Trabajo provisional. Actas
Soc. cient. Chile 10: 135-317 (1900) Also separate 57, 59, 66, 74, 78
Las plantaciones en las dunas de Chauco (Chile) Actas Soc.
cient. Chile 11: 129-151 (1901) Also separate. Abst. Geographie •: 142-149
Q902) Also separate 54, 74
Albuquerque, J. P. d'. See Notes on fall of volcanic duet at Barbados, March
22 1903 .
Alker, Karl. Wanderd On en. Alte und neue Welt 37: 520-524 (1902) 54, 75
Allorge, Maurice. Esquisse geographique du Cap Cod. Ann. geog. 15: 443-448
(1906) 55
Alluard. Du rdle des vents dans 1 'agriculture. Fertility de la Limagne
d* Auvergne. Compt. rend. MO: 1081-1083 (1885) 102, 108, 158
Aipers, F. Beitrage aur Flora von Sylt. Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen 13:
137-140(1894) 71
Alfarei, A. Lettera . . . al P. Angelo Seech i. [Piogge di sabbie] Boll. met.
Oaserv. Collegio Romano 8: 20 (1869) 89
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 177
Page.
Alway, Frederick James. Changes in the composition of the loses soils o!
Nebraska caused by cultivation. Bull. Nebraska agr. expt. stat. Ill, 1909.
19 pp 165
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178 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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Geschiebedreikanter oder Pyramidal-Geschiebe. Jahrb. K.
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Vergleichung der nordfriesischen Inseln mit den ostfriesischen
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 187
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188 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
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190 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 191
Page.
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192 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND,
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Preliminary report of the geology and water resources of Ne-
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 195
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196 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 197
Page.
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Eine reichliche Centurie historischer Nachtrage zu den blut-
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Niederfall von schwarzem, polirtem und hohlen Vogelschrot^
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 199
Page.
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200 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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Flnckh, L. tfber einen am 6 Jan. 1908 in Norddeutschland beobachteter
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npaBirrejrbcTBeH. BicTHHVb 1902, no. 239 75
[Fixation of drift-sands and ravines in 1902.] YKpfenjieHie necsoKb
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[Fixation of drift-sands in 1901.] YspBiueHie jreTvunx* necKOBT> aa 1901 r.
[Bulletins du Ministere agriculture et domaines] HaB-fecrifl M-cTBa ^eMJue^.
n Vocja- HiiymecTB*. 1902, no. 13. [Messager officiel St. Petersburg]
IIpaBHTejn>cTBeH. Bbcthhk% 1902, no. 125 75
[Fixation of drift-sands in Woronesh, Chernigov, Kharkov, Poltava, Tabriz,
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Les lies de la Frise allemande: Sylt, Borkum; le vent et la
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[Flerov, A. Th.] OjiepoB'b, A. 9. [The flora of the Vladimir Government.]
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Fletcher, James. Reclaiming sand dunes. Canad. forestry jour. 1: 182-184
(1905) 74
Fletcher, Stevenson Whitcomb. Soils, how to handle and improve them.
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Flett, John Smith. Note on a preliminary examination of the ash that fell
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 201
Page.
Flett, John Smith. Note on the microscopic characters of the "blood rain"
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See also Anderson, Tempest, and Flett, John Smith.
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See also King, William, jr., and Foote, Robert Bruce.
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202 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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Frantien, W. Die Entstehung der Losspuppen in den alteren ldssartigen
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Fraser, Persifor. Search for the* causes of injury to vegetation in an urban
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'■ Bibliography of injuries to vegetation by furnace gases. Trans.
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Frtth, Jakob. t)ber Windschliffe am "Laufen" bei Laufenburg am Rhein.
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tfber postglacialen, intramoranischen Loss (Loss-Sand) im
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Der postglaciale Loss im St. Gall en Rheinthal mit Beruck-
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Die Abbildung der vorherrschenden Winde durch die Pflanzen-
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 203
Page.
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Fry, Harry Shipley. [Dust in air in Cincinnati.] Announcement* Cincinnati
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Ueber die Erosionsphanomene der Wuste Gobi-. Verh. Ges.
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Der Pe-Schan als Typus der Felsenwuste. Ein Beitrag zur
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Gaberel, J. Note sur une poussiere m^teorique tombee a Genes le 16 mai
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Delle polveri terrestri che possono essere sospese neiratmosfera.
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Communicazione su due pioggie di sabbia in Velletri. Atti
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204 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BT THE WIND.
Page.
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M. Paul Tutkowsky on the origin of the loess. Scott, geog.
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Die Bildung aer " Kantengertille " (Dreikanter, Pyramidalge-
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Bilder von Wind wirkungen am Strande . Naturw . Wochens . 19:
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Gentil, Louis. [Sur lee cendres rejetees par le volcan de la montagne Pelee
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 207
Page.
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Vulkanische Asche auf Bremer und Hamburger Seeschiffen,
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208 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
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Vorlaufige Mittheilung uber den Staub-Regenfall in Nord-
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210 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Page.
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Hlggln, A. J. See Rennie, E. H., and Higgin, A. J.
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Hllgard, Eugene Woldemar. Report on the geology and agriculture of the
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 211
Page.
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Chemical discussion of analyses of volcanic ejecta from Mar-
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See also Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, and Hillebrand, William
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Hoffmann, George Christian. On a peculiar form of metallic iron found in
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212 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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A diluvi&lis mocsarloszrdl [liber den diluvialen Sumpfloez].
Fdldtani K6zl6ny 33: 209-216 [267-2741 (1903) 127
[Ober die Feuchtickeit der Sandhugel langs des Vag-Flusses.]
A vagmenti homokbuczkak nedvessegerdl. Faldtani Kozldny 34: 339-341,
373-375(1904) 73
Elozetes j 61 en tee a Nagy-Alfold diluvialis mocsarldszerdl [Vor-
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The eruptions of La Soufriere, St Vincent, in May, 1902. Nat.
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A geological reconnoissance in the western Sierra Madre of Chi-
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Ten days in camp on Mt. Pele\ Martinique. Bull. Amer. geog.
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Camping on the Soufriere of St. Vincent. Bull. Amer. geog.
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553-559 (1882), 10: 9-16, 71-78, 113-120, 356-368, 413-423 (1883) 129
The loess— A rejoinder. Geol. mag. (2) 9: 343-356 (1882) 129
The fauna and flora of the European loess, being a reply to
Prof. Dr. Nehring. Geol . mag. (2) 10: 206-215 (1883) 129
The loess and the epoch of the mammoth. Geol. mag. (2) 10:
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Httbbe. Der Diinenbau der Koniglichen preussischen Regierung auf den
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Hubert, Karl August. Grundsatze uber die Bedeckung und Urbarmachung
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Httbner. Staubregen. Wetter 21: 96 (1904) 89
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Hull, Edward. In discussion of Cornish, Vaughan. On the formation of sand-
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Humboldt, Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander, freiherr von. Kosmos.
Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung. Stuttgart und Tubingen,
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 213
Page.
Hume, A. 0. See Henderson, George, and Hume, A. 0.
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Notes on Russian geology. Ill, The black earth. Geol. mag.
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Topography and geology of the Peninsula of Sinai (southeastern
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The Southwestern desert of Egypt. Cairo sci. jour. 2: 279-286,
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Humphreys, Andrew Atkinson, and Abbot, Henry Larcom. Report upon the
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Hunter, Byron. Hints to settlers on the Umatilla project, Oregon. Pub.
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I., la. See la. I.
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Iddings, Joseph Paxson. Quoted in Diller, Joseph Silas. The educational
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Illustrated London news. See Shower of hay at Wrexham, Denbighshire.
Inkey, Belatol. [Use]. A losz kepzodeserol. Foldtani Kozlony 8:15-26
(1878) 127,130
[Investigation of drift-sands of Kamyshinsk district, Saratov government.]
Hscjr&AOBauie jierrymx'b necKOB*b bi> KaMBimHHcKOM'b y., CapaTOBCR. ry<5.
[Meseager officiel St. Petersburg.] HpauHTeJibcTBeH. B&cTHHKb 1902,
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[Investigation of the sandy public lands of the Kharkov government.]
H3CJTBAOBaHie njioin&AH nec^anuxi 3eMeju> m> XapBKOBCK. ry<5. [Messager
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[Ispolator, E.] HcnojiaTOB'b, £. [Sandy areas of Tabriz government.] IlecKii
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[On the vegetation of the sands of Tabriz government] O
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[Ivanovskll, I. K.] HBaHOBciriH, H. K. [Tremblements de terre etamoncelle-
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214 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
Page.
[Ivchenko, Aleksandr.] Hbmchko, AjreKcaHAp*. [Denudation of the step-
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min. Russie.] Excero.^HHKb Teojior. MiiHepajt. Poccin. 7, I: 43-59,216-
240 (1904), 8, 1 : 135-197 (1906) 25. 26, 39, 50, 62, 67, 69, 84, 88, 140, 167
[The mobility of dunes.] IIoabiukhoctb ^khtb. [Ann. g£ol.
min. Russie] EaceroAHUKb reojior. Mxraepajor. Poccin9, 1: 244-254 (1908).
Fren chabst.p.2bb 60
[La stratification dans lea depdts eoliens] Cjiohctoctb bt>
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jiorin MHHepajioriH Poccin. 10, I: 18-26 (1908). French abst. p. 27-29;
Russian abst. Ill, p. 245-246; German abst. Ill, p. 261 53, 141
Icrfestlfl Ministerstva zemledfelila i gosudarstvennyk imushchestv. See
Fixation of drift-sands and ravines in 1902; Fixation of drift-sands in 1901;
Fixation of drift-sands in Woronesh, Chernigov, Kharkov, Poltava, Tabriz,
and Ekaterinoelav governments in 1900; On the fixation of drift-sands in
Woronesh government; Work on the fixation of drift-sands in the spring of
1901.
Jaehmann. Nachrichten liber die Kurische Nehrung. Preuss. Provinzialbl.
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Jahresbericht des Sonnblick-Vereines, Vienna. See Ueber Fernsichten.
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Jamfeson, Thomas F. On the climate of the loess period in Central Europe
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Janezfc, Eugen. Mikroskopische Untersuchung der Staubteilchen. Met. Ze.
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J&nnlcke, Wilhelm. Die Sandflora von Mainz; ein Relict aus der Steppen-
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Jaubert, Joseph. Le regime pluviomltrique de la region parisienne. Ann.
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Jeffery, Joseph Alexander. Personally quoted 104
Sample of blown dust sent 45
Jenney, Walter Proctor. Notes on the dry lakes of southern Nevada and
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(1889) 138
Jenny, Fr. Ueber Loss und lossahnlichen Bildungen in der Schwerz. Mitt.
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Jensen. Quoted in Lehmann, Richard. Die danischen Untersuchungen in
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Jentzsch, Karl Alfred. [Uber den Loss des Saalthales.] Sitzungsb. Isis
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Das Quartar der Gegend um Dresden und uber die Bildung
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Uber Baron von Richthofen's Lfestheorie. Verh. geol. Reichs-
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t)ber Baron von Richthofena Lfestheorie und den angeblichen
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Beitrage zum Ausbau der Glacialhypothese in ihrer Anwendung
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Dfinenbildung. Abst. Verh. Ges. deut. Naturf. Aerzte 70, II,
1:190(1898) 54
Die Geologic der Dunen. In Gerhard t, Paul. Handbuch des
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D iinen bildungen. Schriften naturf. Ges. Danzig n. s. 11:
lxi-lxiii ( 1904 ) 57
Dunen. Die Woche 8: 1297-1299 (1906) 75
Uber den Eiswind und das Dunengebiet zwischen Warthe und
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Jentzsch, M. Staubfalle im Passatgebiet des Nordatlantischen Ozeans.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 215
Page.
John, C. von. ttber die chemische Beechaffenheit und den Ursprung dee
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Johnsen, Arrien. Zur Entstehung der Facettengesteine. Centbl. Min.
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Johnson, Douglas Wilson. Block mountains in New Mexico. Amer. geol.
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Johnson, W. H. Report on his journey to Ilchf, the capital of Khotan, in
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Johnson, Willard D. See also McGee, W J, and Johnson, Willard D.
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220 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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KpaTKoe HacraBjieHie m> yiepBiueHiK) h oojrfcceHiio jxeTyviEro neoKOB*.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 223
Page.
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226 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 2fe7
Page
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" ' ~efli -' ' ~ —
See also Hellman, Johann Georg Gustav, and Meinardus, Wil-
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228 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Page.
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Geognostische Beechreibung der Insel Sylt und ihrer Uin-
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Seventh report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Etheridge,
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 229
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230 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
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[Uber die geologiachen Verhaltniase des turaner oder aralo-
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The fauna of central Europe during the period of the loess.
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232 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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236 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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238 MOVEMENT OF SOIL, MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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242 MOVEMENT OP SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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Russell, Israel Cook. A sketch of the geological history of Lake Lahontan,
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A geological reconnaissance in southern Oregon. Ann. rept.
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Geological history of Lake Lahontan, a Quaternary lake of
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Subaerial deposits of the arid regions of North America. Geol.
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Subaerial decay of rocks and origin of the red color of certain
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Notes on the surface geology of Alaska. Bull. Geol. soc. Amer.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 243
Page.
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Volcanic eruptions on Martinique and St Vincent. Nat. geog.
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Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho.
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[S. S.] G. C. [On drift-sands in the Novo-Uzensk district of the Samara
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[S-n, N. A.] Oh*, H. A. [On the question of the "mgla."] Kt> Bonpocy o
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Sabban, P. Die Dunen der sudwestlichen Heide Mecklenburg und fiber
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Sacnsse, Robert, and Becker, Arthur. tJber einige Lease des KGnigreichs
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[Safonov, P. A.] C&$ohobt>, fi. A. [On the question of the study of mgla
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The physical geography of New Jersey. N. J. Geol. surv.
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See also Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, and Salisbury, Rollin D.
[Salomon, A. E.] Csjiomoht>, A. E. [On sandy soils in the Caucasus.]
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Samanos, Eloi. Traits de la cultur du pin maritime dans les Landes. Paris,
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Sandberger, Carl Ludwig Fridolin von. Einiges fiber den Loss. Jour.
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Der Land- und S usswasserconchylien der Vorwel t . Wiesbaden ,
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Uber ein Lossfauna von ZollhauB bei Hahnstatten unweit Diez
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244 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Sandberger, Carl Ludwig Fridolin von. Die Conchylien dee Losses am
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Sands, W. N. The influence of volcanic ash on crops in St. Vincent. Agile.
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A sandy simoon in the northwest. Amer. geol. 3: 397-399 (1889) 70, 140, 165
[Sanln, N.] CaHHirc>, H. [On the mgla and its importance in rural econ-
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Sarasln, Paul and Fritz. Uber die mutmassliche Ursache der Eiszeit. Verh.
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Sardeson, Frederic William. On glacial deposits in the driftless area. Amer.
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What is the loess? Amer. jour. sci. (4) 7: 58-60 (1899) 131
Set al*o Hall, Christopher Webber, and Sardeson, Frederic
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Sargent, R. Harvey. See Willis, Bailey, Blackwelder, Eliot, and Sargent,
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Uber die aeolische Entstehung des Loss am Rande der nord-
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"Zur Lossfrage." NeuesJahrb. Min. 1800, II: 92-97 26,
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Die klimatischen Verhaltnisse wahrend der Eiazeit mit Ruck-
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Geology of Tama county [Iowa] Iowa Geol. surv. 13: 185-253
(1902) 131,133
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(1904) 128,131,134
Geology of Jackson county [Iowa] Iowa Geol. surv. 16: 563-648
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Scacchl, Eugenic Quoted by Palmeri, Paride, Sul pulviscoli tellurici e cos*
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Schaefer, H. Zur Eenntniss der Vegetations verhaltnisse von Neu-Vorpom-
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Schaub, Ira Obed. See Stevenson, William Henry, Schaub, Ira Obed, and
Snyder, A. H.
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Schelten, and Roloff. Geschichte der Strandschutzbauten auf der Insel
Baltrum nebst Bemerkungen tiber die Ostfriesischen Inseln und deren Be-
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Schlbler, Wilhelm. Uber die nivale Flora der Landschaft Davos. Jahrb.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 245
Page.
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Schneider, Fr. Ueber den vulcanischen Zustand der Sunda-Inseln und der
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Schottler, Wilhelm. Bemerkung iiber die in San Cristobal (S. -Mexico) am
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Schrader, Frank Charles. A reconnoiseance in Northern Alaska across the
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Schrftter, Zoltan-tol. A Gelle>thegy delkeleti lejt6ien foltart 15szr61 es duna-
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Schroeder, M. Stahl-. See Stahl-Schroeder, M.
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Schumacher, E. Erlauterungen zur geologischen Karte der Umgcgend von
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Die Bildung und der Aufbau des oberrheinischen Tieflandee.
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Schuster, Arthur. Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Schuster
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Schuster, Max. Resultate der Untersuchungen des nach dem Schlammregen
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Meteorstaub, gefallen in Sudtirol am 3. Mai. Met. Zs. 4: 336
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Schwara, E. H. L. See Rogers, A. W., and Schwarz, E. H. L.
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Schwatka, Frederick. Along Alaska's great river. N . Y., 1885 151
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246 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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Scribner, Frank Lamson-. Economic grasses. U. S. Dept. agr. Div. agrost.
Bull. 14, 1898. 85 p 75
Grasses as sand and soil binders. Yearbook U. S. Dept. agr.
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Sand-binding grasses. Yearbook U.S. Dept. agr. 1898: 405-420. 74,75
Sears, Alfred F. The coast desert of Peru. Bull. Amer. geog. soc. 27: 256-271
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Sftblllant* Sur une chute de pluie observee a Peners (Manche). Oompt. rend.
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Seechi, Angelo. La caligine atmosferica e la sua origine. Boll, meteor. Oss.
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Seebach, Karl von. Ueber den Vulcan yon Santorin und die Eruption von
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Seeland, F. Schlammregen in Klagenfurt. Zs. Met. 20: 419 (1885) 89
Seffer, Pehr Hjalmar Olsson-. See Olsson-Seffer, Pehr Hjalmar.
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Sementlnl, Luigi. Relation du pnenomene d'une pluie chargee d'une poudre
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« Analisi di una terra rossa caduta insieme alia pioggia nel regno
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Semmola, Vincenzo. Delle varieta dei vitigni del Vesuvio e del Somma.
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Senft, Ferdinand. Im Reiche des Sandes. Gaea 15: 83-92 (1879) 50
Serrell, Edward W., jr. Dust-free spaces. Nature 30: 53-54 (1884) Ill
Shftler, Nathaniel Southgate. The origin and nature of soils. Ann. rept.
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Phenomena of beach and dune sands. Bull. Geol. soc. Amer.
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The share of volcanic dust and pumice in marine deposits.
Abst Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 7: 490-492 (1896) 151
Loess deposits of Montana. Bull. Geol. soc. Amer. 10: 245-252
(1899) 52,139,163,164
[Sharln, E.] IHapHH?> 1 E. [Drift-sands and their fixation.] JleTjnie necKH
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Shattuck, George Burbank, and Miller, Benjamin Leroy. Physiography and
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Shaw, Charles F. Experiments by, quoted 17
Shaw, William Napier. The treatment of smoke: a sanitary parallel. Jour.
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Shephard, J. See Brittlebank, C. C, Stickland, and Shephard, J.
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Shifting soils. Pacific rural press 19: 200(1880) 164
Shlmek, Bohumil. Notes on the fossils of the loess at Iowa City, Iowa. Amer.
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The loess and its fossils. Bull. Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 1:
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 247
Page.
Shlmek, Bohumil. A theory of the loess. Proc. Iowa acad. eci. 3: 82-89
(1895) '. 126,128,131,135
Additional observations on surface deposits in Iowa. Proc.
Iowa acad. sci. 4: 68-72 (1897) 52, 126, 128, 131
Is the loess of aqueous origin? Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 5: 32-45
(1896) 126,128,131
The distribution of loess fossils. Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 6: 98-113
(1898) 126,128,131
The distribution of forest trees in Iowa. Proc. Iowa acad. sci.
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The distribution of loess fossils. Jour. geol. 7: 122-140 (1899) . . 126,
128, 131
The loess of Iowa City and vicinity. Bull. Lab. nat. hist.
Univ. Iowa 6: 195-212 (1901); Amer. geol. 28: 344-358 (1901) 126, 128, 131
The loess of Natchez, Mississippi. Amer. geol. 30: 279-299
(1902); Bull. Lab. nat. hist. Univ. Iowa 5: 299-326 (1904) 81, 126, 128, 131
Living plants as geological factors. Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 10:
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Papers on the loess. [The loess of Natchez, Miss. The loess
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Univ. Iowa. «: 298-381 (1904) 55,128,131,134,142,143
The loess and associated interglacial deposits. Abst. Bull
Geol. soc. Amer. 16: 589 (1906) 128,132
The loess of the Missouri River. Proc. Iowa acad. sci. 14:
237-256(1907) 126,128,131,133
The genesis of loess a problem in plant ecology. Proc. Iowa
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The loess of the paha and river-ridge. Proc. Iowa acad. sci.
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Quoted in Udden, Johan August, Geology of Mills and Fremont
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Shone, William. The cause of crateriform sand dunes and cwms. Geol. mag.
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The shower of sand at Rome. Mon. microsc. jour. 18: 159 (1877) 92
SIbirzev, N. M. fitude des sols de la Russe. Compt. rend. Cong. geol. intern.
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Sickenberger. Quoted by Walther, Johannes. Wustenbildung, p. 118 164
Slegert, Th. See Sauer, Adolf, and Siegert, Th.
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Silvestrl, Orazio. Quoted in Denza, Francesco, Pioggia di sabbia. Ann. sci.
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[The action of the wind on the soil] ^-feficTBie FBTpa Ha hohbv.
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Sulle polveri meteoriche e Panalisi chimica dalla sabbia del
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252 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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Experiences relatives a la vitesse des courants d'eau ou d'air
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Experiences synth&iques sur l'abrasion. Ann. mines (8) 11:
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Experiences synthe'tiques sur l'abrasion des roches. Compt.
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La marche des sables le long des rivages. Compt. rend. 144:
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De Pinfluence du vent dans le remplissage du lit de l'ocean.
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Origine 6olienne des mineraux fins contenus dans les fonds
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Dissolution des poussieres ferrugineuses d' origine cosmique dans
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Die Funde Nehring's im Diluvium bei Wolfenbuttel und deren
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Jahrb. geol. Reichsanst. 31:67-130(1881) 140
Die geognostischen Verhaltnisse der Gegend von Lemberg.
Jahrb. geol . Reichsanst. 32: 7-152 (1882) 40, 125, 130
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[Timoshchenkov, I.] TnMom;eHKOB'i>, H. [Drift-sands of the Don region.]
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 258
Page.
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Corpuscles alliens et matieres salines contenus dans la neige.
Compt. rend. 83: 58-61 (1875) 45, 110, 116, 120
Sur r existence de corpuscules ferrugineux et msgnltiques dans
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Analyse micrographique comparative de corpuscules ferrugi-
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Sur une pluie de poussiere tombee a Boulogne-sur-Mer, le 9
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Recent wind action upon the loess. Proc. Iowa acad. sci.
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Formation of the Quaternary deposits [Missouri], Missouri geol.
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Volcanic dust in southwestern Nebraska and in South Dakota.
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The moraines of southeastern South Dakota and their attendant
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More light on the origin of the Missouri River loess. Proc. Iowa
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254 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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[Skizze der posttertiaren Ablagerungen der Districte Wladimir-
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[On the question of the manner of formation of the loess.] Kb
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[Cailloux faconnes (Dreikanter) dans la partie sud du Polessie*.]
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U. S. Dept* of Agric Bureau of Soils.
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256 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. 25^
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Lagerstatten aus der Steinzeiten der oberen Havel-Gegend und
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* Vlrgfl. £Sneid. Book 4, line 454 89
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« Observations relatives a la theorie generate dee trombes.
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Yogel, C. See Cnelius, Carl, and Vogel, C.
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Volcanic ashes. Nature 29: 437 (1884) 159
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The volcanic eruption of Krakatau. Proc. Roy. geog. soc. n. s. 6:142-152 (1884) 147
[VolkOF, N.] Bojekob^, H. [Fixation of sand in the Chernigov government.]
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Toll, Wilhelm. Der Vulcan Papandajan in West-Java. Neuee. Jahrb. Min.
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Vorwerg, O. Kantengeschiebe aus dem Warmbrunner Tal. Zs. deut. geol.
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Vuyck, Laurens. De plantengroei der duinen. Leiden, 1898. 363 p 71
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Volcanic dust east of the Rocky Mountains. Science f : 63
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53952°— Bull. 68—11 17
2&6 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
PASO*
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— — Die Quartarbildungen der Umgegend von Magdeburg. Abb.
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Ueber zwei conchylienf uhrende Lfosablagerungen ndrdKcfe
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Die lonartigen Bildungen am Rande dee norddeutschen Flach-
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[tiber Dreikantner aus der Gegend von Rathenow und ibre
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Beitrag zur Lossfrage . Jahrb . K. Preuss . geol . Landesanst . 1886:
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Die Ursachen der Oberflachengestaltung dee norddeutschen
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Wattner, Johannes. Die Entstehung von Kantengerdllen in der Galalawuste.
Berichte K. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. Leipzig 86: 133-136 (1887) 26
Uber ErgebniBse einer Forschungsreise auf der Sinai halbinsel
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Die Denudation in der Wuste und ihre geologische Bedeutung.
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Abb. K. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. Leipzig 16: 345-570 (1891) Also separate 22,
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BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 263
Page.
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Buntsandfltein bei Saalfeld in Thuringen und fiber sandge-
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INDEX.
Pagtt.
Adobe 128
Alkali dust 105
retention of blown dust by 63
Alumina, in sirocco dust , 94
Ammophila armaria as sand binder 75
Analyses, sirocco dust 93, 95
volcanic dust \ 155
See also Mechanical analyses.
Angle of rest of sand 60
Animals, soil movement by 16
Arctic haze, due to snow 119
ice, dust on 103
Atmospheric dust 110
collection 114
composition Ill, 112
condensation of water on Ill
heat absorbed by Ill
local material in 106
optical effects 116, 117
organic matter in 160
quantity 114, 115, 116
suspension of 110
sources 112, 120
transient 99
uniformity of Ill
Autumn haze 117
de Baer, law of 40
Baked surface of soil, protection by 33
Barchans. See Dunes, crescentic.
Basin ranges, origin ; 38
Beach grass as a sand binder 75
Bishop's Ring 117
Black rain and snow 92
Blood rain 90
Blown sands. See Sands, blown.
Blown soil. See Soil blowing.
Bolsons, origin of 38
Brush cover to prevent blowing * 170
Burial, natural, of articlas in the soil 106
Callina 118
Garnotite * 145
Cement dust, effect on plants 167
Cementation of calcareous sands 143
Chemical composition of sirocco dust 93, 95
Chemical composition of volcanic dust 153, 155, 156
Chernozem 162
Cirques, formed by eolian erosion 41
Clay, prevention of blowing by 170
Clearing land, methods for avoiding soil blowing 169
Climate and dune movement 143
of the Pleistocene and Recent periods 137
relation of geologic deposits to 137, 143, 144, 146
265
266 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL, BY THE WIND.
Page.
Coastal dunes 64,65,75
sands, sources of 163
Cobalt, in atmospheric dusts 120, 121, 122
in red ram . 92
Colloidal clay, prevention of blowing by 168
Colob formation 142
Competence of the wind 41
radius of 42
Condensation on dust particles Ill, 115
Concretions of the loess 125
Coral rock, eolian 143
Corrasion by wind 24, 40, 53, 145
damage to crops by — 166.
Corona?, caused by dust 117-
Cosmic materials in atmospheric dust 120
origin of sirocco dust ....,- 90-
Creep of soil , , 16, 20.
Critical moisture content of soils ,,.•..... 31 .
Cross-bedding, eolian * 138, 141
Crusting of soils, protection by 33
Cryokonite 103, 160
Cultivation to prevent blowing 171-
wind-damage following . 29, 168, 169
Cyclone, nature of *...... 87
Deep-sea deposits, iron spherules in 121"
volcanic dust in 151
Deflation 37,136
zone of 137
Deforestation, sand drift started by 77
Denudation, eolian 47, 99
* error in calculations of 47
Deposition, eolian 49, 107
Desert pavement 32, 37, 51
Deserts, eolian deposits in 122
geology of 54
haze in 118
in past geologic time 144, 145
sand and dust Btorms in 78, 82
surface of 37, 65
Dew, retention of blown dust by 53
Diatoms in sirocco dust 90
Distance of transfer, by dust storms 82
eolian action 47
of organic matter 162
volcanic dust 149
Dreikanter 26,145
Drift, glacial, relation to loess 132
Drifting sand. See Sands, blown.
Dry farming methods, soil blowing caused by 170
Dry fog and haze. See Dust haze.
Drying action of wind 22, 29, 30, 171
Dune flora 71
Dune sands. See Sands, blown.
Dune smoke 66
Dunes 54, 57, 142, 143, 163
coastal.. 54,65,75
control. - - • • 74
craterlike hollows in 66
crescentic *. . . 61
encroachment 74
fixation .J 74, 76
intermittance of movement 143
longitudinal 65
migration. 58
moisture in 72
reclamation 74
wdm, 267
Page.
Dunes, slopes « ^^ .^^^^^^ 60
soil layers in „.«. 143
transverse 64
Dust, atmospheric ^^ 110
blown, accumulation of.... ... ,. 100, 104
burial of articles by. 106
composition of ... 103
deposition of in cities ^. . . ...^ 101
deposition of in fields ^ . . . . , 100
in the soil 100,104
size of ^ % 44, 45
quantity deposited 102, 103
industrial, in the air 104
in rain and snow 102
on arctic ice 103
See also Atmospheric dust; Cosmic dust; * Dust storms; Dust haze;
Sirocco dust; Volcanic dust.
Dust eddies, nature of 88
Dust falls 77,80
See also Dust storms; Sirocco dust; Volcanic dust.
Dust hatos 117
Dust haze 117
. . effect on insolation 119
. . from smoke 118
. in deserts , 117, 118
volcanic 119
Dust storms 77,79,96,99,102
deposition by , 81,102,140
distances covered 82
fertilizing action 129
local material moved by ;;.:......... 106
loess formed by 140
quantity of material carried 81
types : 78
Dust whirlwinds 83
material moved by 86, 87
Earthworms, soil translocation by 16, 107
Eddies, always present in wind 34
in dune formation 66
in ripple formation 68
lifting of material by 34
See also Dust eddies.
Eolation 37
Electrical phenomena in dust storms 85
repulsion of suspended particles 110
Elutriation by wind 35, 94, 136
Eolian corrosion 24, 40, 53, 145, 166
denudation 99
deposition 49
regions of 52
deposits 81, 104, 122
characteristics of 36, 141
See also Eolian rocks; Eolian soil; Loess.
erosion 24,31,37,39,51,78,171
plane of 38, 39
protection against 28
See also Soil blowing.
mesas 51
planation 38, 39
rocks 141, 142, 143
See also Eolian deposits.
soils 52,105,122
characteristics of 124
Erosion by wind. See Eolian erosion; Soil blowing.
of loess 125
Evaporation from Band 71
268 MOVEMENT OF BOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Page.
Faceted pebbles 26,145
Fall of small bodies in air, rate of 42
Falls of dust, pollen, etc. See Dust-falls; Pollen; etc.
Fallow, soil Mowing induced by 170
Fertility of blown sands .*. 73
loess 128,129
volcanic dust ^ 158
Fires, whirlwinds over 86
Fish, falls of 91
Fog, dry. See Dust-haze.
Forestation of dunes 76
Fossils of loess 125,133
Fumes, injury to plants and soil 166,167
Gascony , dunes of 76
Gases in the soil. See Soil gases.
Glacial drift, relation to loess 132
period, loess formed in '. 132
See also Ice.
Gold, separation by air elutriation 36
Gullies formed by wind 51
Hail, solid nuclei in 121
Halos, dust 117
Hawkesbury sandstone, origin of 142
Haze, due to snow crystals lid
See also Dust-haze.
Humus, distribution by wind 160, 161
in blown sands 73
soil blowing prevented by 28, 29
Ice, in tundra 102
movement of soil material by 17
See also Glacial.
Ice-sheet, formation of loess at border of 137
formation of loessial material by 136
Impact forces of air on suspended particles , 35
Inflation , zone of 139
Insects, rains of 91
Inselberge, origin of 39
Insolation, effect of haze on 119
Insolational disintegration of sand 69
Iron in atmospheric dusts 120
Irrigated farms, soil blowing on 169
Eanab formation, origin 142
Keuper formation , origin 145
Krakatoa, revegetation of 159
Lag gravels 35
Laterite 94, 105
Leaves, blowing of • 161
Lee Bands 35
Levees, natural 134
Lichens, rain of 91
Loess 52,70,122,123,124
age 132
concretions 125
dunes under 142
erosion 125
fertility of 129
fossils 125,133
origin 102,129,130,133,135,138,139
Pre-Pleistocene 141, 143
relation to glacial drift 132
relation to streams 134
secondary 133, 139, 140
stratification 134,135
INDEX. 269
Page.
Loess-like deposits, eolian 140
Lcess-Mannchen 125
Manure, prevention of soil blowing by 170
Marram grass 75
Mauch Chunk formation, origin of 144
Mechanical analyses of blown soils 30,167
dunesands 44
Meteoric dust. See Atmospheric dust; Cosmic dust; Sirocco dust.
Meteors, atmospheric dust from 120
Mala 118
Minerals in blown dusts 103
sirocco dust 92
the soil, persistence of 13
supplied by the wind 22, 109
volcanic dust * 152,153
Moisture, in dunes 70,71,72
movement of. in sands 30
prevention of soil blowing by 29, 30, 170
retention of blown dust by..., 52, 53
See also Soil moisture.
Moor-smoke, haze caused by il8
Mounds formed by wind 50
Mulch, dust, soil blowing caused by 170
Natural burial of articles in the soil 106
fixation of dunes 76
N$ve°, loess accumulation in 139
Nickel in atmospheric dust 120, 121, 122
Night-soil, use of, in China 129
Nubian sandstone, origin of 142
Old Red sandstone, origin of 144
Organic matter, blowing of 160
in wina-borne dusts 160
See also Humus.
Overgrazing, soil blowing caused by 169
Pampas, origin of 128
Passatstaub. See Sirocco dust.
Pebbles, faceted 26,145
protective layers of. See Desert pavement.
Phosphorus in volcanic dusts 157, 158
Planation, eolian 38, 39
Plants, dissemination by wind 161
protective action of 28
See also Dune-flora; Vegetation.
Pollen, rains of 91
Potassium in volcanic dusts 156
Protections against eolian erosion 28
Protococcus nivalis, red snow caused by 91
Pumice, dust from 148
Radius of competence 42
Rain, "black, f ' "red, ""muddy," etc 80,91,92
See also Sirocco dust.
of blood 90
salt in 112,113
solid matter in Ill, 116
Rain-wash 17,19,40,107,108
origin of loess by 138
Rate of fall of small bodies in air 110
Red color of rocks 145
Red rain. See Sirocco dust.
snow *..< 91
sun and sky, cause of 117
Ripple-marks in rocks 141
Ripples, sand 67
270 MOVEMENT OF BOH/ Sd^TERI AL, BY THE WIND.
Page.
River dimes , , , , , , , , . , 163
sediment, amount t . , ,,.,.,,..,, 18
distribution by wind : 163
in soils ::..:.:...:: 21
Riven, asymmetric erosion by . . : 40
soil translocation by ::::::;..... 18, 21, 163
Roofs, soil on. . : 105
Rounding of sand grains : 69, 137
Rye, use of, to prevent soil blowing 169, 172
Sahara, denudation of „..,.„, 49
dust from 91, 92, 94, 96
See also Sirocco dust.
sand from, minerals in 92
Saint Peter sandstone, origin of 142
Salt crust, protective action of , . . 33
crystals, rains of 91
in air and rain 112
Saltation, movement of sand by 33, 47, 53
Sand, angle of rest of 1 60, 61, 62
binding, plants for 75
blast 24
blowing of, relation of moisture to 30
blown 35, 36, 37, 53, 70, 141, 142, 146
effect of fixation on 76
fertility of 73
mechanical analysis of 36, 44, 68, 70
minerals in 68
moisture in 70
See also Dunes; Soil blowing.
coastal 163
drift, nature of T , „ 63
drift, intermittence of , , 143
dunes. See Dunes.
glacierB 57
grains, shape of , 69
plains 54
ridges ;.:.:... 64
ripples 67
Sahara, minerals in ::::;.::::,.: 92
spouts. See Dust whirlwinds.
storms, desert 78
See also Dust storms.
Sandstones, eolian : . 141, 142
Sandy soils, blowing of : : : 167
Seeds, wind-distribution of , 161
Sheetflood :.;.;.... 40
Silty soils, blowing of .:;::.:.... 168
Sirocco dust 83,88,92,99
chemical composition •. 93
color ::::.::::.....: 95
injury to plants by ,..-.- 167
iron spherules in 121
local materials in 93, 106
minerals in 92
organic matter in 160
[, origin 91,92
quantity deposited 97
size of particles 45
Size of particles of wind-borne materials v . . P 41, 42, 44, 45, 69, 124
Sky, color, cause of , , 117
Smoke, atmospheric dust from 101, 112
black rain caused by ,„, 91, 92
haze caused by 118
injury to plants by ...,.,. , , 166, 167
3now, colored ...... t , r . , ,,,,-. 91, 92
See also Sirocco dust.
INDEX. 271
Page.
Snow, deposition of loess with % -^ *-•.... ..... .•..-.•<•.•. .-^.- .•.-.•. -.v. 102, 139
•drifting of < « - *...^.....*... •.•.*.... .-.•..- 53
dunes ,. ... 63, 65
Soil blowing, effect on soil composition 109, 124, 164
excessive ,.....,,.., 79, 164, 165, 167, 169
soil translocation by 22, 41, 79, 81, 99, 103, 104, 108, 109
creep 16, 20
eolian 51,52,105,107,122,124,167
gases, effect of wind on 22
injury by fumes 166, 167
loessial 128,129
moisture, effect of wind on . - , 22, 29, 30
• -Set also Moisture.
temperature, effect of wind on. — 22
translocation ,....,< 15, 17, 22, 46, 47, 79, 162
See also Soil blowing.
volcanic dust in 150, 158
Solifluction 16
Spherules of iron in atmospheric dusts 120
Steppes, dust storms of 77, 78
Stofces, formula of 42
Stones moved by wind 44
rain of 91
Storms. See Dust storms; Sand storms.
Straw, use to prevent soil blowing 170
Streams, relation of loesB to 134
translocation by 18, 19, 20, 21
See also Rivers.
Sulphur, rains of ." 91
Sun, colored, cause of 117
Sunset colors, cause of 117
Suspension of solids in air, experiments on 43
forces producing 42
Sylvania sandstone, origin of 142
Tamarisk, prevention of soil blowing by 172
Temperature of the soil. See Soil temperature.
Till, glacial, relation of loess to 132
Tirs 123,162
Tornadoes 87
Trade wind dust. See Sirocco dust.
Translocation. See Soil translocation.
Transparency of air, effect of dust on 115, 117
Transport capacity of wind 46
Triassic Period, deserts in the 142, 145
Tschernozem 162
Tuff, volcanic. See Volcanic tuff.
Tundra, ice in 102
Uniformity of blown dusts and sands 36, 111, 124
Upper currents of the atmosphere 49
Valleys, asymmetry of 40
Vegetation, accumulation of blown material by . . . 50, 51, 52, 58, 100, 109, 131, 134, 139
action of wind on 171
effect of volcanic dust on 159
for sand-binding 75
formation of loess by 131, 134, 139
of dunes 71, 72
protective action of 28, 57, 109, 168
Volcanic dust 106, 119, 148, 149, 150, 158, 160, 167
composition 152, 155, 156, 157
fertility 158, 159
blowing of 36,147,160
tuff 151, 153, 155, 156, 157
soil layers in 158
Volcanoes, material ejected by 146
whirlwinds over 87
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272 MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND.
Water in soils. See Soil moisture. Page-
soil translocation by 17,18, 19
Waterspouts 87
Whirlwinds, erosion by 87
See also Dust whirlwinds.
Willows, prevention of soil blowing by 172
Wind, action of , on vegetation 171
corrosion. See Eolian corrasion.
eddies in 34
erosion. See Eolian erosion.
geologic action of 22
translocation of soil. See Soil blowing.
transport capacity of 46
velocity of, in relation to competence 41, 42
vertical component of 34
Windbreaks 171
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